Third, teachers learn from teacher educators in their schools, in degree
programs, and in specific teacher enhancement projects that are often provided
by consultants. In the 1960s, teachers were trained in this way to use
behavioral objectives; in the 1970s, they were taught Madeline Hunter’s lesson
structure; and currently, they are offered such topics as constructivism,
alternative assessments, and cooperative learning. Teacher enhancement
programs funded by federal agencies, such as the National Science Foundation
and the U.S. Department of Education, tend to organize training by
subject area and are often tied to innovations in curriculum or pedagogy.