Protein/Polypeptide Hormones
Examples of protein/polypeptide hormones include adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) from the pituitary, insulin from the pancreas, and parathyroid hormone (PTH). These hormones range in size from three amino acids (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to considerably larger proteins with subunit structure (eg, luteinizing hormone). They are produced in their endocrine tissue of origin by transcription/translation of the gene coding for the hormone and synthesized initially as larger products (prepro- or pre-forms) that undergo processing to authentic hormone inside the cell before secretion. Embedded in the gene coding for protein structure are amino acid sequences (signal peptides) that communicate to the cell that these molecules are destined for the regulated secretory pathway. Other post-translational modifications may occur during processing, including folding, glycosylation, disulfide bond formation, and subunit assembly. The folded and processed hormone is then stored in secretory granules or vesicles in preparation for release by the exocytotic process. Release of hormone is triggered by unique signals; eg, secretion of PTH is stimulated by a decline in the concentration of ionic or free calcium present in the extracellular fluid bathing the parathyroid chief cells. In most cases, cells producing protein/polypeptide hormones store significant amounts of these substances intracellularly; therefore, they can respond quickly when increased amounts are needed in circulation. Generally, protein/polypeptide hormones have relatively short half-lives in blood (minutes) and do not travel in blood-bound carrier proteins (exceptions exist, eg, insulin-like growth factor 1 is highly protein bound).
Protein/polypeptide hormones act on their target cells by binding to receptors located on the cell surface. These receptors are proteins and glycoproteins embedded in the cell membrane that traverse the membrane at least once so that the receptor is exposed to both the extracellular and intracellular environments. There are several classes or types of cell surface hormone receptors that translate the hormonal message to the cell interior by different means. Some are the G-protein (guanosine) coupled type, with seven transmembrane spanning domains. After hormone binding, these receptors activate a G-protein that is also located in the membrane. One or more of the G-protein subunits affects other downstream molecules (known as effectors) such as enzymes (eg, adenylate cyclase or phospholipase C) or ion channels. Activation may result in production of a second messenger, such as cyclic AMP, that can then bind to protein kinase A, causing its activation and subsequent phosphorylation of other proteins. Thus, signal transduction is a cascading and often amplifying series of events triggered when a hormone binds to its receptor. The ultimate effects in target cells are multiple and include such things as triggering secretion, increasing uptake of a molecule, or activating mitosis. Other receptors, such as the one for insulin, not only bind hormone but also act as enzymes, with the ability to phosphorylate tyrosine residues. The phosphorylated tyrosines in turn serve as docking sites for downstream signaing proteins.
Cell surface receptors are dynamic; their numbers and/or activity change with physiologic conditions. In some cases, such as exposure to excessive amounts of hormone, receptor down-regulation can occur. Down-regulation and a decline in target tissue responsiveness may be due to internalization of receptors after ligand binding or to desensitization whereby the receptor is chemically modified and becomes less active. Conversely, a lack of hormonal exposure can lead to an increase in receptor numbers on target cells (up-regulation). Diseases have been linked to mutations in hormone receptors, which can result in inactivation or constitutive or nonhormonal activation of the pathway. In some instances, a single amino acid substitution is responsible.