Functions of astrocytes
The functions of astroglial cells are many; astrocytes create the brain environment, build up the micro-architecture of the brain parenchyma, maintain brain homeostasis, store and distribute energy substrates, control the development of neural cells, synaptogenesis and synaptic maintenance and provide for brain defence.
Concept of radial glial cells as stem cells
Neurons and macroglia both originate from neuroepithelial cells. Early in development, neuroepithelial cells transform into the radial glia which now have been recognized as the neural precursor cell. Asymmetric division of radial glia produce neuronal precursors that migrate to their destinations using the processes of the radial glial as a scaffolding guide-line. The radial glia can also act as progenitors (through several transitional forms) for both astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Some of the astrocytes, localised in the neurogenic niches of the adult brain, retain the stem cell properties throughout the life span and are the source for the adult neuro- and glio-genesis. In addition neuroglial cells are instrumental in promoting neuronal survival at different developmental stages through the release of numerous neurotrophic factors (for example epidermal growth factor, EGF, glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor, GDNF, etc.).
Astrocytes define the brain micro-architecture
In the mammalian brain the astroglial cells define the micro-architecture of the parenchyma by dividing the grey matter (through the process known as “tiling”) into relatively independent structural units. The protoplasmic astrocytes occupy their own territory and create the micro-anatomical domains within the limits of their processes. Within the confines of these anatomical domains the membrane of the astrocyte covers synapses and neuronal membranes, as well as sends processes to plaster the wall of the neighbouring blood vessel with their endfeet. The complex astrocyte-neurons-blood vessel is generally known as a neurovascular unit.
The individual astroglial domains are integrated into the superstructure of astroglial syncytia through gap junctions localised on the peripheral processes of astroglial cells. These astroglial syncytia are also anatomically segregated being formed within defined anatomical structures, for example in individual barrels of the somatosensory cortex.
Astrocytes control extracellular K+ homeostasis
Astroglial cells can control extracellular homeostasis in the brain. By virtue of multiple molecular cascades, astrocytes control concentrations of ions, neurotransmitters and metabolites and regulate water movements. An early recognized function of astrocytes is the control of K+ levels in the brain. Neuronal activity leads to an increase in K+ concentration from a resting level of about 3 mM to a maximum of 10 - 12 mM under physiological conditions and to even higher values under pathological conditions. Higher K+ concentration in the extracellular space modulates neuronal activity and the brain has a tendency to keep extracellular K+ levels stable at their resting value. Astrocytes remove excess extracellular K+ by at least two different mechanisms. So called ´spatial buffering´ is a passive mechanism by which K+ is taken up at the site of higher concentration (facilitated by inward rectifier K+ channels), redistributed within the astrocyte or the coupled astrocyte network and released at sites where it is lower. In retinal Müller cells, this process is termed K+ siphoning. Secondly, they can remove extracellular K+ by an increase in pump activities such as the Na+/K+-ATPase activity, leading to an increase in intracellular K+ and water. The glial syncytia and aquaporine channels expressed in astrocytes also play a role in water homeostasis in the brain.
Astrocytes remove excess glutamate
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain of vertebrates. When released in excess or for long-time, glutamate acts as a powerful neurotoxin that triggers neuronal cell death in many acute and chronic brain lesions. The glial function to “chemically split or take up” transmitters was predicted by the Italian psychiatrist Ernesto Lugaro in 1907. Astrocytes remove the bulk of glutamate from the extracellular space; they accumulate 80% of the glutamate released, whereas the remaining 20% is taken up by neurons. Astrocytes remove extracellular glutamate by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAAT). Five types of EAATs are present in the human brain; the EAAT1 and EAAT2 are expressed almost exclusively in astrocytes (the rodent analogues are known as glutamate/aspartate transporter, GLAST, and glutamate transporter-1, GLT-1). The glutamate transporters are co-transporters which utilize the energy saved in the form of transmembrane Na+ gradient so that the transport of a single glutamate molecule requires an influx of 3 Na+ ions and 1 H+ ion coupled with the efflux of 1 K+ ion. The substantial sodium accu
หน้าที่ของ astrocytes การทำงานของเซลล์ astroglial เป็นจำนวนมาก astrocytes สร้างสภาพแวดล้อมที่สมอง สร้างสถาปัตยกรรมไมโครของถุงสมอง รักษาภาวะธำรงดุลของสมอง เก็บ และกระจายพลังงานพื้นผิว ควบคุมการพัฒนาของเซลล์ประสาท synaptogenesis และผู้บำรุงรักษา และให้สำหรับการป้องกันสมอง แนวคิดของเซลล์ glial รัศมีเป็นเซลล์ต้นกำเนิด เซลล์ประสาทและ macroglia ทั้งสองมาจากเซลล์ neuroepithelial ในการพัฒนา neuroepithelial เซลล์เปลี่ยนเป็น glia รัศมีซึ่งขณะนี้ ได้รับรู้เป็นเซลล์ในระบบประสาท ส่วนที่ไม่สมมาตรของ glia รัศมีผลิตสารตั้งต้นที่เส้นประสาทที่โยกย้ายไปยังจุดหมายโดยใช้กระบวนการของรัศมี glial เป็นนั่งร้านแนว Glia รัศมียังสามารถทำหน้าที่เป็น progenitors (ผ่านหลายรูปแบบเปลี่ยนแปลง) สำหรับ astrocytes และ oligodendrocytes บาง astrocytes หน่วงในตรงไหนของสมองผู้ใหญ่ neurogenic รักษาคุณสมบัติของเซลล์ต้นกำเนิดตลอดช่วงชีวิต และเป็นแหล่งสำหรับการผู้ใหญ่ neuro - และ glio-ปฐมกาล นอกจากนี้ เซลล์ neuroglial เป็นเครื่องมือในการส่งเสริมการอยู่รอดเส้นประสาทในระยะพัฒนาการต่าง ๆ ผ่านการปล่อยปัจจัยกระทบ neurotrophic จำนวนมาก (ตัวอย่างเช่นผิวหนังเจริญเติบโตปัจจัย ช่วย กระทบ neurotrophic มาเซลล์ glial ปัจจัย GDNF ฯลฯ) Astrocytes กำหนดสถาปัตยกรรมไมโครสมอง In the mammalian brain the astroglial cells define the micro-architecture of the parenchyma by dividing the grey matter (through the process known as “tiling”) into relatively independent structural units. The protoplasmic astrocytes occupy their own territory and create the micro-anatomical domains within the limits of their processes. Within the confines of these anatomical domains the membrane of the astrocyte covers synapses and neuronal membranes, as well as sends processes to plaster the wall of the neighbouring blood vessel with their endfeet. The complex astrocyte-neurons-blood vessel is generally known as a neurovascular unit. The individual astroglial domains are integrated into the superstructure of astroglial syncytia through gap junctions localised on the peripheral processes of astroglial cells. These astroglial syncytia are also anatomically segregated being formed within defined anatomical structures, for example in individual barrels of the somatosensory cortex. Astrocytes control extracellular K+ homeostasis Astroglial cells can control extracellular homeostasis in the brain. By virtue of multiple molecular cascades, astrocytes control concentrations of ions, neurotransmitters and metabolites and regulate water movements. An early recognized function of astrocytes is the control of K+ levels in the brain. Neuronal activity leads to an increase in K+ concentration from a resting level of about 3 mM to a maximum of 10 - 12 mM under physiological conditions and to even higher values under pathological conditions. Higher K+ concentration in the extracellular space modulates neuronal activity and the brain has a tendency to keep extracellular K+ levels stable at their resting value. Astrocytes remove excess extracellular K+ by at least two different mechanisms. So called ´spatial buffering´ is a passive mechanism by which K+ is taken up at the site of higher concentration (facilitated by inward rectifier K+ channels), redistributed within the astrocyte or the coupled astrocyte network and released at sites where it is lower. In retinal Müller cells, this process is termed K+ siphoning. Secondly, they can remove extracellular K+ by an increase in pump activities such as the Na+/K+-ATPase activity, leading to an increase in intracellular K+ and water. The glial syncytia and aquaporine channels expressed in astrocytes also play a role in water homeostasis in the brain.
Astrocytes remove excess glutamate
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain of vertebrates. When released in excess or for long-time, glutamate acts as a powerful neurotoxin that triggers neuronal cell death in many acute and chronic brain lesions. The glial function to “chemically split or take up” transmitters was predicted by the Italian psychiatrist Ernesto Lugaro in 1907. Astrocytes remove the bulk of glutamate from the extracellular space; they accumulate 80% of the glutamate released, whereas the remaining 20% is taken up by neurons. Astrocytes remove extracellular glutamate by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAAT). Five types of EAATs are present in the human brain; the EAAT1 and EAAT2 are expressed almost exclusively in astrocytes (the rodent analogues are known as glutamate/aspartate transporter, GLAST, and glutamate transporter-1, GLT-1). The glutamate transporters are co-transporters which utilize the energy saved in the form of transmembrane Na+ gradient so that the transport of a single glutamate molecule requires an influx of 3 Na+ ions and 1 H+ ion coupled with the efflux of 1 K+ ion. The substantial sodium accu
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
