Our results are consistent with the view that focal performance, contextual performance, lateness, absence, and turnover all have similar discretionary content across organizations, although there may be in behavior variability in discretion within organizations. More detailed the orizing and research are needed about the amount of discretion and constraint present for various job behaviors, especially if such research elaborates the temporal dynamics between job attitude and the higher-order behavioral construct—including specification of reciprocal mechanisms and causal lags. One interpretation of the behavioral threshold argument would be that variability in organization all policies and other situational constraints on specific job behaviors across organizations would have shown up in the present study as effect size variability unaccounted for by artifacts. Estimates reported in Table 1
.