Although Sun and the revolutionaries contributed considerably to the Chinese revolutionary movement in general, the part that they played in the 1911 Wuhan Uprising in particular was small.
i As has been pointed out, the Wuhan Uprising was in fact a military revolt of the Ch'ing government's New Army units. The T'ung-menghui did not directly organize and start it. There were no T'ung-meng hui members in Wuhan at that time. And the rebellious officers in Wuhan had no contact whatsoever with Sun. In fact, when the revolt broke out, Sun was in America.
ii. After the Wuhan Uprising, it was provincial declarations of independence, not revolts organized by the Revolutionary Alliance, that overthrew the Ch'ing dynasty.
iii. Before 1911, the Revolutionary Alliance could seldom establish bases in the provinces for revolutionary activities. After the Wuhan revolt, provincial power was in the hands of the gentry-merchant-militarist alliance. Later, when the Revolutionary Alliance attempted to extend influence in the provinces, only one of them, Kwangtung (Sun's native province), lent support to it. Soon, however, even Kwangtung was lost, as the gentry and merchants there abandoned Sun to support a warlord.
iv. That Sun was elected as president was mainly due to the deadlock between Li Yuan-hung and Huang Hsing in deciding who was to be president. [Go Top]
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1911 REVOLUTION IN CHINA
A. End to the monarchical form of government
Politically speaking, the 1911 Revolution was a decisive break with the past. For over two thousand years, China had been ruled by the monarchical form of government. Now, in 1911, however, she was willing and determined to abandon it. Whereas in the past, the dynasty could claim absolute obedience from its subject people, the Chinese people after 1911 began to learn that sovereignty (i.e. national right) belonged finally to them and to no one else.
B. Decreased Confucianism and increased Westernization and modernization
Such a political break with the past had at least two farreaching effects:
i. Negatively, the importance of Confucianism in Chinese society was greatly decreased. As the emperorship political structure had been an inseparable part of Confucianism, the abolition of the monarchy in 1911 declared Confucianism a useless political belief. Later, during the May Fourth Revolution in 1919, even Confucianism as a way of life and a body of social thought was under attack. In this way, the 1911 political revolution made way for the 1919 intellectual revolution.
ii. Positively, the creation of a Western-style republic speeded up and extended Westernization and modernization in all areas of Chinese city life and culture. The Chinese people were therefore psychologically better prepared to accept new, modern things. Indeed, some intellectuals even accepted Communism later.
C. Practice of republicanism
Over the world at large at that time, republicanism was still not popularly practiced. For example, except for China, there was no republic in Asia in 1911. Even in Europe, there were only two republican governments, one in France, the other in Switzerland. Seen in this way, therefore, the 1911 Revolution in China was indeed very advanced.
D. Lack of social revolution
Socially speaking, the 1911 revolution was a failure:
i. First, the Revolution did not bring about much change in the composition of the Chinese ruling classes. It is true that the emperor and his officials were gone, but the conservative gentry-landlords had not been overthrown, and still ruling in the countryside. In addition, military men of the Late Ch'ing like Yuan Shih-k'ai remained influential. Revolutionaries and intellectuals, who helped run the Republic, were powerless in the presence of these conservative forces.
ii. Secondly, the revolution was limited to several cities only and was too quickly concluded. Only the political system was revolutionized; the social order remained what it had been. Consequently, while the city was modernized, the village was as backward and conservative as ever.
E. Increased provincial decentralization
Once the dynasty had been overthrown, the traditional link between the provinces and Peking was cut. The new Republic was weak and could not establish centralized political power over all China. Consequently, the local-provincial scholar-gentry fell back on local and provincial, not national, affairs. The growth of national consciousness was therefore slowed down. Seen from this angle, the 1911 Revolution worsened the problem of political decentralization of the late Ch'ing period.
F. From anti-Manchuism to anti-imperialism
Before 1911, Chinese intellectuals could blame the Manchus for all the national and social problems that China suffered. Now that the Manchus no longer ruled, the blame began to be directed at foreign imperialism. Modern Chinese nationalism, therefore, gradually changed from anti-Manchuism to anti-imperialism after 1911.
G. Increased foreign influence in China
Because the new Chinese Republic was weak and divided, foreign control of China was increased after 1911. For example, the foreign diplomats in Peking had taken over the complete direction of China's maritime customs.
H. Loss of Outer Mongolia and Tibet
Territories that traditionally belonged to China were lost, ilke Outer Mongolia and Tibet, which declared independence from China after 1911.
Although Sun and the revolutionaries contributed considerably to the Chinese revolutionary movement in general, the part that they played in the 1911 Wuhan Uprising in particular was small.
i As has been pointed out, the Wuhan Uprising was in fact a military revolt of the Ch'ing government's New Army units. The T'ung-menghui did not directly organize and start it. There were no T'ung-meng hui members in Wuhan at that time. And the rebellious officers in Wuhan had no contact whatsoever with Sun. In fact, when the revolt broke out, Sun was in America.
ii. After the Wuhan Uprising, it was provincial declarations of independence, not revolts organized by the Revolutionary Alliance, that overthrew the Ch'ing dynasty.
iii. Before 1911, the Revolutionary Alliance could seldom establish bases in the provinces for revolutionary activities. After the Wuhan revolt, provincial power was in the hands of the gentry-merchant-militarist alliance. Later, when the Revolutionary Alliance attempted to extend influence in the provinces, only one of them, Kwangtung (Sun's native province), lent support to it. Soon, however, even Kwangtung was lost, as the gentry and merchants there abandoned Sun to support a warlord.
iv. That Sun was elected as president was mainly due to the deadlock between Li Yuan-hung and Huang Hsing in deciding who was to be president. [Go Top]
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE 1911 REVOLUTION IN CHINA
A. End to the monarchical form of government
Politically speaking, the 1911 Revolution was a decisive break with the past. For over two thousand years, China had been ruled by the monarchical form of government. Now, in 1911, however, she was willing and determined to abandon it. Whereas in the past, the dynasty could claim absolute obedience from its subject people, the Chinese people after 1911 began to learn that sovereignty (i.e. national right) belonged finally to them and to no one else.
B. Decreased Confucianism and increased Westernization and modernization
Such a political break with the past had at least two farreaching effects:
i. Negatively, the importance of Confucianism in Chinese society was greatly decreased. As the emperorship political structure had been an inseparable part of Confucianism, the abolition of the monarchy in 1911 declared Confucianism a useless political belief. Later, during the May Fourth Revolution in 1919, even Confucianism as a way of life and a body of social thought was under attack. In this way, the 1911 political revolution made way for the 1919 intellectual revolution.
ii. Positively, the creation of a Western-style republic speeded up and extended Westernization and modernization in all areas of Chinese city life and culture. The Chinese people were therefore psychologically better prepared to accept new, modern things. Indeed, some intellectuals even accepted Communism later.
C. Practice of republicanism
Over the world at large at that time, republicanism was still not popularly practiced. For example, except for China, there was no republic in Asia in 1911. Even in Europe, there were only two republican governments, one in France, the other in Switzerland. Seen in this way, therefore, the 1911 Revolution in China was indeed very advanced.
D. Lack of social revolution
Socially speaking, the 1911 revolution was a failure:
i. First, the Revolution did not bring about much change in the composition of the Chinese ruling classes. It is true that the emperor and his officials were gone, but the conservative gentry-landlords had not been overthrown, and still ruling in the countryside. In addition, military men of the Late Ch'ing like Yuan Shih-k'ai remained influential. Revolutionaries and intellectuals, who helped run the Republic, were powerless in the presence of these conservative forces.
ii. Secondly, the revolution was limited to several cities only and was too quickly concluded. Only the political system was revolutionized; the social order remained what it had been. Consequently, while the city was modernized, the village was as backward and conservative as ever.
E. Increased provincial decentralization
Once the dynasty had been overthrown, the traditional link between the provinces and Peking was cut. The new Republic was weak and could not establish centralized political power over all China. Consequently, the local-provincial scholar-gentry fell back on local and provincial, not national, affairs. The growth of national consciousness was therefore slowed down. Seen from this angle, the 1911 Revolution worsened the problem of political decentralization of the late Ch'ing period.
F. From anti-Manchuism to anti-imperialism
Before 1911, Chinese intellectuals could blame the Manchus for all the national and social problems that China suffered. Now that the Manchus no longer ruled, the blame began to be directed at foreign imperialism. Modern Chinese nationalism, therefore, gradually changed from anti-Manchuism to anti-imperialism after 1911.
G. Increased foreign influence in China
Because the new Chinese Republic was weak and divided, foreign control of China was increased after 1911. For example, the foreign diplomats in Peking had taken over the complete direction of China's maritime customs.
H. Loss of Outer Mongolia and Tibet
Territories that traditionally belonged to China were lost, ilke Outer Mongolia and Tibet, which declared independence from China after 1911.
การแปล กรุณารอสักครู่..
