A listening vocabulary test is needed for three reasons. First, second language learners’
orthographic and phonological lexical knowledge can differ significantly (McLean &
Kramer, 2014; Milton & Hopkins, 2006). Second, on-line phonological processing of
lexical forms places greater demands on working memory than off-line orthographic
processing. Reasons for this include the greater complexity and large amount of individual
variation of speech (Rost, 2011, p. 101). Third, a listening vocabulary test, in contrast to
a written vocabulary