In stroke patients with defined large-artery atherosclerosis
or small-vessel disease, risk factors should be modified
and antiplatelet drugs are recommended, along with carotid
endarterectomy or percutaneous transluminal angioplasty in
selected patients. According to the guidelines, acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA) should be a first-choice antiplatelet drug in secondary
prevention.41 First-choice treatment can be ASA in
combination with dipyridamole (25/200 mg twice daily) or
clopidogrel monotherapy (75 mg/day). The combination of
ASA + clopidogrel is not recommended in secondary stroke
prevention except in the case of the coincidence of stroke
and a recent myocardial infarction or status post-coronary
stenting. Clopidogrel 75 mg/day is considered a first-choice
treatment, especially in patients with ASA intolerance. In
patients with cardioembolic stroke due to atrial fibrillation
or other cardioembolism, warfarin (International Normalized
Ratio [INR] 2–3) is indicated for secondary prevention. For
patients unable to take oral anticoagulants and those who
refuse all forms of anticoagulation, ASA + clopidogrel
combination therapy, or less effectively only ASA is recommended.60,61
Novel oral anticoagulants (NOAC; thrombin and
factor X inhibitors) have the added benefit of not requiring
INR monitoring. Clinical studies have demonstrated noninferiority
of all NOAC tested in comparison with warfarin, with
better safety and a reduced risk of intracerebral hemorrhage.