Direct supervision means that one individual is responsible of the work of others. This concept refers to the unity of command and scalar principles.
Standardization of work process exists when the content of work is specified or programmed. In school districts, this refers to job descriptions that govern the work performance of educators.
Standardization of skills exists when the kind of training necessary to do the work is specified. In school systems, this refers to state certificates required for the various occupants of a school district’s hierarchy.
Standardization of output exists when the results of the work are specified. Because the “raw material” that is processed by the operative core (teachers) consists of people (students), not things, standardization of output is more difficult to measure in schools than in other nonservice organizations. Nevertheless, a movement toward the standardization of output in schools in recent years has occurred. Examples include competency testing of teachers, state-mandated testing of students, state-mandated curricula, prescriptive learning objectives, and other efforts toward legislated learning.
Mutual adjustment exists when work is coordinated through informal communication. Mutual adjustment or coordination is the major thrust of Likert’s (1987) “linking-pin” concept.
The third basic dimension