Community-based disaster management is one example of a programme that comes into existence as a
'reaction' to a problem. Shaw and Goda (2004) espouse that the major earthquake in Kobe of 1995 led to
an increase in voluntary and non-government activities, and the enhancement of cooperation between
local government and CBO in managing disasters. They add that the local network is effective in
collective decision-making and to represent the voice of the community in dealing with Japan's various
disasters. On the other hand, Yodmani (2001) suggests that the failure of a top-down management in
addressing the needs of vulnerable communities has brought about the alternative; involving the
vulnerable people themselves in the planning and implementation of mitigation measures. He believes the
affected communities are the best judges of their own vulnerability and can make the best decisions about
their well being (see also Marcillia and Rohno 2012).