sulphation reactions. During discharge, paste thickening progressively hinders electrolyte transport toward the inner electrode regions making the sulphation reaction through the electrode
thickness progressively incomplete. Paste thickening is due to the
formation on both electrodes of lead sulphate, which occupies a
larger volume than both lead and lead dioxide [3]. In addition, the
repetitive volume changes cause mechanical instability of the
plates determining the crumbling of the active pastes, with further
progressive loss of capacity. For these reasons, lead-acid batteries
are not suitable for the most innovative applications, such as
electric mobility, where they can be used only in micro-hybrid cars,
i.e. cars equipped with a start-stop system