Based on problem behavior theory, deviance is
defined as involvement in illegal, socially disapproved, or age-inappropriate
behaviors (Donovan et al., 1991; Jessor and Jessor, 1977;
Jessor et al., 1991). Deviance was measured using a 6-item scale
adapted from these previous studies. Respondents were asked how
many times in the past 12 months they had lied to cover up something
they did, purposely damaged other people’s property, taken
things from a store or shop without paying for them, been in a fight
where they hit or shoved someone, skipped school without permission,
and used drugs to get high. There were 4 response options,
from “never” to “often.” A mean score was computed, with a higher
score indicating greater deviance. The internal reliability (Cronbach’s
a) for the scale was 0.65.