The changes over time differ partly between Dutch and German students (see Figs. 2–4 ). Significant changes for Dutch students are found in mastery-approach (i.e., a decrease from time A to C), in deep learning (i.e., an increase from time B to C) and in surface learning (i.e., an increase from time A to C). Significant changes for German students are found in mastery- avoidance (i.e., a decrease from time A to C), in self-efficacy (a decrease from time A to C) and in surface learning (i.e., an increase from time B to C). At time point C, German students scored higher on surface learning (M = 3.04) compared to deep learning (M = 2.77), whereas at time point A they scored contrariwise on surface learning (M = 2.72) and on deep learning (M = 2.95).