Complexity, specialisation, and disintegration are emerging as major challenges in terms of risk management in supply chains, having made them vulnerable to disturbances from both inside and outside the system. Indeed, many recent events have shown how vulnerable long and complex supply chains are. Such events include the well-known melamine crisis in Chinese dairy products, and other food crises; major natural disasters including floods, tsunamis, and earthquakes; industrial and societal disputes across the globe, as well as firm and supply chain-specific glitches and disturbances (Hendricks and Singhal, 2003; Chopra and Sodhi, 2004; Sheffi, 2005; Narasimhan and Talluri, 2009). This vulnerability has attracted the attention of many academics in the field of logistics and supply management, in which risk-related issues are increasingly taken into account (Minahan, 2005; Kleindorfer and Saad, 2005; Sanchez-Rodrigues et al., 2008, 2010; Wagner and Neshat, 2010; Ghagde et al., 2012). In this context, the quality and competitiveness of individual companies’ operations depend on their ability to identify and mitigate the uncertainties and risks they encounter. However, although awareness of vulnerability and of risk management is increasing among academics and practitioners, many related concepts are still in their infancy. There are thus insufficient conceptual frameworks and empirical findings to provide a clear picture of the phenomenon of supply chain risk management (Jüttner, 2005; Manuj and Mentzer, 2008). Accordingly, both academic research and practitioner reports stress its importance as well as the need to develop different approaches (Blos et al., 2009; Manuj and Mentzer, 2008; Shaer and Goedhart, 2009).
In line with the above-mentioned developments, the role of supply chain risk management has recently been increasingly emphasised. Indeed, Jü (2005) found that 44 per cent of organisations expected their vulnerabilities to increase within the next five years. More recently, the need for risk management has become evident following Snell's (2010) study showing that 90 per cent of the respondent companies feared supply risks, whereas only 60 per cent felt confident or knowledgeable enough to cope with them. In addition, Hendricks and Singhal (2005) found out that firms that experience supply chain disruptions experience on average 40 per cent stock returns. Thus, it is not surprising that there is a growing interest in supply chain-related decisions and the uncertainty and risk involved (Prater, 2005; Swink and Zsidisin, 2006; Craighead et al., 2007; Hendricks et al., 2009; Hult et al., 2010). In fact, it has traditionally been assumed that supply side risk is similar to or equivalent to demand side risk (Christopher and Peck, 2004). However, it has been suggested that supply-side risks and uncertainty are much more complex issues than demand-side ones, and that, therefore, managing them needs more careful attention (see Snyder and Shen, 2006).
Supply chain risk management concerns risk as a situation entailing exposure to two essential components: an event and the uncertainty concerning the possible outcomes (Holton, 2004; Sheffi, 2005). Thus, risk assessment is based on the likelihood of the occurrence of the risk situation, and on the kind of damage it might entail if realised (Mitchell, 1995). The different types of risk are extensively covered in the relevant literature (Rao and Goldsby, 2009), but analysis of the concept of risk itself is very limited. For instance, the management of risk is commonly discussed in terms of vulnerability and uncertainty (Sorensen, 2005), meaning that the concept is understood as an occurrence for which the probability distribution is known. However, we suggest that in reality, it is much more common that the probability distributions cannot be defined. Thus, in order to enhance understanding of how risks could be better managed under such conditions, we put forward a conceptual framework focused on the role of uncertainty in supply chain risk management.
Supporting our argument and illustrating the research gap, some authors have criticised the fact that the literature on supply chain risk management does not always clearly distinguish between risk and uncertainty, which makes the definitions quite vague (Tang and Nurmaya Musa, 2010). Further, it has been suggested that merely recognising uncertainty is not enough, but researchers and practitioners need more rigorous frameworks breaking uncertainty down into more detailed elements (Prater, 2005). Indeed, earlier studies have reported that the concepts of risk and uncertainty are less understood and developed in this context than in other disciplines (Khan and Burnes, 2007). Given that the two concepts are among the most essential in supply chain risk management, clarity is of the essence. The aim in this paper, therefore, is to enhance understanding of these concepts by illustrating the levels of uncertainty in supply chain risk management. In so doing, we hope to define the nature of uncertainty so as to facilitate a more comprehensive and valuable consideration of how the concept should be approached in future studies in the field.
In the next section, we introduce the theoretical background of supply chain risk management and uncertainty. We then develop our conceptual model of different types of certainty/uncertainty and their implications for the analysis and management of supply chain risk. In building the framework, we utilise an integrative literature review, aiming to synthesise and integrate existing literature in the quest of generating new frameworks and perspectives (Torraco, 2005). We mainly build on the existing supply chain risk management literature and combine it with the insights from economic theory on certainty vs uncertainty (Simon, 1957; Langlois, 1984; Dosi and Egidi, 1991). Illustrative examples of each type of uncertainty follow, which cover events related to the focal actor, the supply chain, and the external environment. The study ends with discussion of the theoretical and practical implications and further research directions.
2. Theoretical background
Section:Previous sectionNext section
2.1 Supply chain risk management
The supply chain comprises a series of activities and organisations through which material and information move on their way to the final customer. Peck (2005) describes supply chain vulnerability in this context as exposure to serious disturbance arising from risks within and external to the chain. According to Waters (2007), vulnerability reflects the susceptibility of a supply chain to disruption, and is a consequence of risks in it. Jü (2005) further refers to supply chain vulnerability as the propensity of risk sources and drivers to outweigh risk-mitigating strategies, thus causing adverse consequences in the chain and jeopardising its ability to effectively serve the end customer market. Supply chain risk management, in turn, is a function that aims to identify the potential sources of risk, and to implement appropriate actions to avoid or contain supply chain vulnerability (Narasimhan and Talluri, 2009; see also Ghagde et al., 2012).
Supply chain risk is commonly portrayed as a threat that something might happen to disrupt normal activities and that would stop things happening as planned (Waters, 2007). Most of the literature defines risk as purely negative and leading to undesired results or consequences (Harland et al., 2003; Manuj and Mentzer, 2008). A standard formula for the quantitative definition of supply chain risk is (Mitchell, 1995):
(Equation 1)
where risk is defined as the probability (P) of loss and its significance (I).
Hetland (2003) and Diekmann et al. (1988) view risk as an implicitly uncertain phenomenon. It should be noted that there are differences between the two concepts of risk and uncertainty, however. Waters (2007) explains the difference, suggesting that a risk occurs because there is a certain type of uncertainty about the future. In this traditional risk management context, uncertainty means that unexpected events may occur, but they can be quantified and therefore managed.
However, as a concept, uncertainty reaches far beyond the traditional conception of risk, and thus it deserves more elaborate scrutiny. Van der Vorst and Beulens (2002, p. 413) define supply chain uncertainty as “decision making situations in the supply chain in which the decision maker does not know definitely what to decide as he is indistinct about the objectives; lacks information about its environment or the supply chain; lacks information processing capacity; is unable to accurately predict the impact of possible control actions on supply chain behaviour; or, lacks effective control actions.” The sources of uncertainty include quantity, quality, and time (Van der Vorst and Beulens, 2002).
Davis (1993) was among the first scholars to explicitly consider uncertainty as a strategic issue for supply chains. However, in his investigations, the sources were limited to suppliers, manufacturing, and customers, and the effects to the performance of the supply chain. Later, building on the work of Davis (1993), Mason-Jones and Towill, 1998 developed an uncertainty circle model, adding control systems as one more source and offering a wider perspective on the supply and demand sides of the chain; this was then further complemented by Geary et al. (2002) and Sanchez-Rodrigues et al. (2008).
It appears from these studies that uncertainty has been taken into account in supply chain risk management in various ways and in different contexts, but the literature still lacks frameworks and consensus in terms of the role of uncertainty.
2.2 Uncertainty and risk
Knight's (1921) distinction between certainty, risk, and uncertainty could be regarded as the best-known and most frequently used typology of uncertainty in risk management. In his definition of risk, he c
ซับซ้อน ได้ และสลายตัวเกิดขึ้นใหม่เป็นความท้าทายที่สำคัญในการบริหารความเสี่ยงในห่วงโซ่อุปทาน การมีทำให้พวกเขาเสี่ยงที่จะเกิด จากทั้งภายใน และภาย นอกระบบ แน่นอน หลายเหตุการณ์ล่าสุดได้แสดงให้เห็นว่าเสี่ยงลอง และห่วงโซ่อุปทานที่ซับซ้อน เหตุการณ์ดังกล่าวมีวิกฤตเมลามีนรู้จักนมจีน และวิกฤตอื่น ๆ อาหาร ภัยธรรมชาติที่สำคัญรวม ถึงน้ำท่วม สึนามิ แผ่นดิน ไหว ข้อโต้แย้งการอุตสาหกรรม และนิยมทั่ว โลก เช่นเป็นบริษัท และบกพร่องเฉพาะห่วงโซ่อุปทาน และการรบกวน (นดริกส์และ Singhal, 2003 โชปราและ Sodhi, 2004 Sheffi, 2005 Narasimhan ก Talluri, 2009) ช่องโหว่นี้ได้ดึงดูดความสนใจของนักวิชาการมากมายในด้านการจัดการโลจิสติกส์และซัพพลาย ซึ่งปัญหาที่เกี่ยวข้องกับความเสี่ยงมากขึ้นพิจารณา (Minahan, 2005 Kleindorfer และสะอัด 2005 โรดริเกวสแซนเชซ et al., 2008, 2010 วากเนอร์และ Neshat, 2010 Ghagde et al., 2012) ในบริบทนี้ คุณภาพและการแข่งขันของการดำเนินงานของแต่ละบริษัทขึ้นอยู่กับความสามารถในการระบุ และลดความไม่แน่นอนและความเสี่ยงที่พวกเขาพบการ อย่างไรก็ตาม แม้ว่าการรับรู้ความเสี่ยง และการบริหารความเสี่ยงเพิ่มขึ้นในหมู่นักวิชาการและผู้ หลายที่เกี่ยวข้องกับแนวความคิดที่จะยังอยู่ในวัยเด็กของพวกเขา จึงมีกรอบแนวคิดที่ไม่เพียงพอ และพบประจักษ์ให้ภาพที่ชัดเจนของปรากฏการณ์ของซัพพลายเชนการบริหารความเสี่ยง (Jüttner, 2005 Manuj ก Mentzer, 2008) ดังนั้น ทั้งงานวิชาการและผู้ประกอบการรายงานความเครียดความสำคัญรวมทั้งต้องพัฒนาแนวทางต่าง ๆ (Blos et al., 2009 Manuj และ Mentzer, 2008 Shaer ก Goedhart, 2009)โดยการพัฒนาดังกล่าว บทบาทของการบริหารความเสี่ยงของห่วงโซ่อุปทานได้เพิ่งถูกมาก emphasised จริง ๆ Jü (2005) พบว่า ร้อยละ 44 ขององค์กรคาดว่าช่องโหว่ของการเพิ่มภายในห้าปีถัดไป เมื่อเร็ว ๆ นี้ ต้องการบริหารความเสี่ยงได้กลายเป็น ดังต่อไปนี้ของเซีชัดศึกษา (2010) แสดงว่า ร้อยละ 90 ของบริษัท respondent กลัวความเสี่ยงจัดหา โดยเฉพาะ 60 ร้อยละรู้สึกว่ามั่นใจ หรือมีความรู้พอที่จะรับมือกับพวกเขา นอกจากนี้ นดริกส์และ Singhal (2005) พบว่า บริษัทที่พบการหยุดชะงักของห่วงโซ่อุปทานพบเฉลี่ยคืนหุ้นร้อยละ 40 ดังนั้น จึงไม่น่าแปลกใจว่า มีความสนใจมากขึ้นในการตัดสินใจที่เกี่ยวข้องกับห่วงโซ่อุปทาน และความไม่แน่นอน และความเสี่ยงที่เกี่ยว (Prater, 2005 Swink และ Zsidisin, 2006 Craighead et al., 2007 นดริกส์ et al., 2009 Hult et al., 2010) ในความเป็นจริง มันดั้งเดิมสันนิษฐานว่าความเสี่ยงด้านอุปทานคล้ายกับ หรือเทียบเท่ากับความต้องการด้านความเสี่ยง (คริสโตเฟอร์และเป็ก 2004) อย่างไรก็ตาม มันได้ถูกแนะนำว่า supply-side ความเสี่ยงและความไม่แน่นอนเป็นปัญหาที่ซับซ้อนมากขึ้นกว่าคนด้านความต้องการ และว่า ดังนั้น การจัดการพวกเขาต้องการความระมัดระวังมากขึ้น (ดู Snyder และ Shen, 2006)อุปทานความกังวลห่วงโซ่ความเสี่ยงจัดการความเสี่ยงเป็นมรดกสัมผัสกับส่วนประกอบที่สำคัญสองสถานการณ์: เหตุการณ์และความไม่แน่นอนเกี่ยวกับผลได้ (Holton, 2004 Sheffi, 2005) ดังนั้น ประเมินความเสี่ยงจะขึ้นอยู่กับโอกาสของการเกิดขึ้นของสถานการณ์ความเสี่ยง และในชนิดของความเสียหาย มันอาจอันถ้าเองก็ยังคิด (Mitchell, 1995) ความเสี่ยงชนิดต่าง ๆ อย่างกว้างขวางครอบคลุมในวรรณกรรมที่เกี่ยวข้อง (ราวและ Goldsby, 2009), ได้วิเคราะห์แนวคิดของความเสี่ยงตัวเองจะจำกัดมาก ตัวอย่าง การบริหารความเสี่ยงโดยทั่วไปกล่าวถึงในแง่ของความเสี่ยง และความไม่แน่นอน (Sorensen, 2005), หมายความ ว่า แนวคิดคือเข้าใจว่าเป็นเหตุการณ์ที่เรียกว่าการแจกแจงความน่าเป็น อย่างไรก็ตาม เราแนะนำว่า ในความเป็นจริง มันเป็นทั่วไปมากว่า การกระจายความน่าเป็นไม่กำหนด ดังนั้น เพื่อความเข้าใจว่าความเสี่ยงได้ดีจัดการภายใต้เงื่อนไขดังกล่าว เรานำกรอบแนวคิดที่เน้นบทบาทของความไม่แน่นอนในการบริหารความเสี่ยงของห่วงโซ่อุปทานSupporting our argument and illustrating the research gap, some authors have criticised the fact that the literature on supply chain risk management does not always clearly distinguish between risk and uncertainty, which makes the definitions quite vague (Tang and Nurmaya Musa, 2010). Further, it has been suggested that merely recognising uncertainty is not enough, but researchers and practitioners need more rigorous frameworks breaking uncertainty down into more detailed elements (Prater, 2005). Indeed, earlier studies have reported that the concepts of risk and uncertainty are less understood and developed in this context than in other disciplines (Khan and Burnes, 2007). Given that the two concepts are among the most essential in supply chain risk management, clarity is of the essence. The aim in this paper, therefore, is to enhance understanding of these concepts by illustrating the levels of uncertainty in supply chain risk management. In so doing, we hope to define the nature of uncertainty so as to facilitate a more comprehensive and valuable consideration of how the concept should be approached in future studies in the field.In the next section, we introduce the theoretical background of supply chain risk management and uncertainty. We then develop our conceptual model of different types of certainty/uncertainty and their implications for the analysis and management of supply chain risk. In building the framework, we utilise an integrative literature review, aiming to synthesise and integrate existing literature in the quest of generating new frameworks and perspectives (Torraco, 2005). We mainly build on the existing supply chain risk management literature and combine it with the insights from economic theory on certainty vs uncertainty (Simon, 1957; Langlois, 1984; Dosi and Egidi, 1991). Illustrative examples of each type of uncertainty follow, which cover events related to the focal actor, the supply chain, and the external environment. The study ends with discussion of the theoretical and practical implications and further research directions.2. Theoretical backgroundSection:Previous sectionNext section2.1 Supply chain risk managementThe supply chain comprises a series of activities and organisations through which material and information move on their way to the final customer. Peck (2005) describes supply chain vulnerability in this context as exposure to serious disturbance arising from risks within and external to the chain. According to Waters (2007), vulnerability reflects the susceptibility of a supply chain to disruption, and is a consequence of risks in it. Jü (2005) further refers to supply chain vulnerability as the propensity of risk sources and drivers to outweigh risk-mitigating strategies, thus causing adverse consequences in the chain and jeopardising its ability to effectively serve the end customer market. Supply chain risk management, in turn, is a function that aims to identify the potential sources of risk, and to implement appropriate actions to avoid or contain supply chain vulnerability (Narasimhan and Talluri, 2009; see also Ghagde et al., 2012).Supply chain risk is commonly portrayed as a threat that something might happen to disrupt normal activities and that would stop things happening as planned (Waters, 2007). Most of the literature defines risk as purely negative and leading to undesired results or consequences (Harland et al., 2003; Manuj and Mentzer, 2008). A standard formula for the quantitative definition of supply chain risk is (Mitchell, 1995):(Equation 1)where risk is defined as the probability (P) of loss and its significance (I).Hetland (2003) and Diekmann et al. (1988) view risk as an implicitly uncertain phenomenon. It should be noted that there are differences between the two concepts of risk and uncertainty, however. Waters (2007) explains the difference, suggesting that a risk occurs because there is a certain type of uncertainty about the future. In this traditional risk management context, uncertainty means that unexpected events may occur, but they can be quantified and therefore managed.However, as a concept, uncertainty reaches far beyond the traditional conception of risk, and thus it deserves more elaborate scrutiny. Van der Vorst and Beulens (2002, p. 413) define supply chain uncertainty as “decision making situations in the supply chain in which the decision maker does not know definitely what to decide as he is indistinct about the objectives; lacks information about its environment or the supply chain; lacks information processing capacity; is unable to accurately predict the impact of possible control actions on supply chain behaviour; or, lacks effective control actions.” The sources of uncertainty include quantity, quality, and time (Van der Vorst and Beulens, 2002).Davis (1993) was among the first scholars to explicitly consider uncertainty as a strategic issue for supply chains. However, in his investigations, the sources were limited to suppliers, manufacturing, and customers, and the effects to the performance of the supply chain. Later, building on the work of Davis (1993), Mason-Jones and Towill, 1998 developed an uncertainty circle model, adding control systems as one more source and offering a wider perspective on the supply and demand sides of the chain; this was then further complemented by Geary et al. (2002) and Sanchez-Rodrigues et al. (2008).It appears from these studies that uncertainty has been taken into account in supply chain risk management in various ways and in different contexts, but the literature still lacks frameworks and consensus in terms of the role of uncertainty.2.2 Uncertainty and riskKnight's (1921) distinction between certainty, risk, and uncertainty could be regarded as the best-known and most frequently used typology of uncertainty in risk management. In his definition of risk, he c
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