L a p a r o s c o p i c d o n o r
n e p h r e c t o m y
The first laparoscopic donor nephrectomy was performed
by Ratner and colleagues in 1995.4
With the donor placed in a lateral decubitus position and
the operation table maximally flexed, 4 or 5 trocars are
introduced. The abdomen is insufflated to 12 mmHg. The
colon is mobilised and displaced medially. Gerota’s fascia
is opened and the renal vein and ureter, with sufficient
periureteral tissue, are identified and dissected. The renal
artery is identified. Branches of the adrenal, gonadal
and lumbar veins are clipped and divided. The ureter
is clipped distally and divided. Then, a low transverse
suprapubic (Pfannenstiel) incision or midline incision
is made creating a gate for extraction of the kidney
later on. The renal artery and vein are divided using an
endoscopic stapler or clips. The kidney is extracted through
the extraction incision, and flushed with preservation
fluid and stored on ice. Extraction of the kidney can be
performed directly through the incision or by using a
special endoscopic specimen retrieval bag.
Disadvantages of this technique include the steep and
long learning curve, the risk of bowel injury from
trocar insertion or during instrumentation, internal
hernias or hernia through trocar sites and intestinal
adhesions.16 Injuries to the lumbar vein, renal artery 201
m a y 2 0 1 0 , v o l . 6 8 , n o 5
Minnee, et al. Laparoscopic donor nephrectomy.
and aorta, pneumomediastinum, splenic injury, and
adrenal/retroperitoneal haematomas have been reported.17
Conversion rate from laparoscopic to open surgery is 1.8%
(range 0 to 13.3%). Approximately half of the conversions
to open are for bleeding or vascular injury.18
The laparoscopic technique results in a shorter vascular
pedicle when compared with the open donor nephrectomy.
The warm ischaemia time and operating time for
laparoscopic donor nephrectomy is substantially longer
than compared with open donor nephrectomy.
Simforoosh et al. reported the first randomised controlled
trial between open and laparoscopic donor nephrectomy.
They included 100 donors and reported no differences
in complications and graft survival. Donors of the
laparoscopic group were more satisfied and resumed their
normal activities earlier.2
Recently, Nicholson et al. randomised 84 donors between
open and laparoscopic donor nephrectomy (LDN). LDN
results in less postoperative complications, less pain,
shorter hospital stay, earlier return to employment without
differences in renal function or allograft survival.19
Several meta-analysis compare open and laparoscopic donor
nephrectomy.15,18 The overall results demonstrate that the
laparoscopic technique is associated with a significantly
shorter hospital stay, fewer postoperative analgesic
requirements, improved cosmetics and a quicker return
to work as compared with open donor nephrectomy. In
addition, compared with the open technique, laparoscopic
donor nephrectomy is associated with less donor morbidity
and similar allograft function and overall safety, but with
increased costs.18 Laparoscopic donor nephrectomy was
compared with the mini-incision open donor nephrectomy
in a study by Kok et al. In this randomised controlled trial
comparing laparoscopic donor nephrectomy to mini-incision
muscle splitting open donor nephrectomy, they reported
longer warm ischaemia time (6 vs 3 min, p<0.001), less blood
loss (100 vs 240 ml, p<0.001), less morphine (16 vs 25 mg,
p=0.005) and shorter hospital stay (3 vs 4 days, p=0.003)
in the laparoscopic group without a statistically significant
difference in complication rate (intraoperatively 12 vs 6%,
p=0.49, postoperatively both 6%) and graft survival.13
Hand-assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy
Hand-assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy was
first utilised to minimise the learning curve of the
total laparoscopic donor nephrectomy. In addition, the
hand port provides addition safety to laparoscopic donor
nephrectomy, because rapid control of eventual massive
blood loss from major blood vessels is possible due to the
hand assistance. Different incisions for hand introduction
have been described, such as a Pfannenstiel incision, a
midline supraumbilical, periumbilical or infraumbilical
incision. The hand port can be used partly or totally during
the operation.
The hand-assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy is
done transperitoneally.20 After open dissection of the
distal ureter and gonadal vein through a 7 to 8 centimetre
Pfannenstiel incision the nondominant operator’s hand
is introduced through a hand port and two trocars are
placed. The insufflation pressure is maximally 12 mmHg.
The right or left colon is then mobilised. The renal vein
and artery are identified and the kidney is mobilised
from the surrounding tissue. After transecting the ureter
distally, the renal artery is transected with metal clips or an
endoscopic stapler which is used to transect the renal vein.
The kidney is extracted through the Pfannenstiel incision
and cold flushed and preserved with preservation fluid.
Potential disadvantages are higher costs because of the
hand port, a worse ergonomic position for the surgeon
during operation, a higher rate of wound infections
and increased traumatic injury to the transplant as a
consequence of manipulation. Conversion to open surgery
is 2.97% in the hand-assisted group.21 The most common
causes for conversion to open surgery include intraoperative
haemorrhage or vascular injury, difficult kidney exposure
or an obese donor, vascular staple malfunction, adhesions
and loss of pneumoperitoneum. Potential advantages
of hand-assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy over
conventional laparoscopy include the ability to use
tactile feedback, less kidney traction, rapid control of
bleeding, fast kidney removal and shorter warm ischaemic
periods.21,22 Kokkinos et al. performed a meta-analysis
which compared the total laparoscopic donor nephrectomy
with the hand-assisted laparoscopic donor nephrectomy.
They reported a significantly shorter warm ischaemic time,
operation time and less blood loss for the hand-assistance
technique. The hand-assisted technique also had a reduced
intraoperative and postoperative complication rate when
compared with the total laparoscopic technique, but these
differences failed to reach statistical significance.21
In addition, the introduction of hand-assisted laparoscopic
donor nephrectomy broadens the indications for laparoscopic
living donor nephrectomy to include obese donors and
donors who have had previous abdominal surgery.23 Wolf
et al. reported 47% less analgesic use (p=0.004), 35%
shorter hospital stay (p=0.0001), 33% more rapid return
to non-strenuous activity (p=0.006), 23% earlier return to
work (p=0.037), and 73% less pain six weeks postoperatively
(p=0.004) in the hand-assisted laparoscopy group compared
with the open donor group.24 Bargmann et al. showed no
difference between the hand-assisted laparoscopy group and
totally laparoscopy group in a randomised controlled trial
regarding intra and postoperative complications.
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