247
Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 9:247–257, 2004
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 1087–1209 print / 1533-158X online
DOI: 10.1080/10871200490505675
Human Dimensions of Wildlife 94Taylor & FrancisTaylor and Francis 325 Chestnut StreetPhiladelphiaPA191061087–12091533-158X UHDW Taylor & Francis Inc. 30350 1.1080/10871200490505675 2004 16F. Madden Creating Coexistence Peer-Reviewed Articles
Creating Coexistence between Humans
and Wildlife: Global Perspectives
on Local Efforts to Address
Human–Wildlife Conflict
FRANCINE MADDEN
Chair, Human–Wildlife Conflict Initiative, CEESP-IUCN
Washington, DC, USA
Keywords World Parks Congress, human–wildlife conflict, global
Introduction
Every 10 years, the IUCN World Parks Congress (WPC) brings together conservation
experts from around the world to share information and ideas, and set a
global policy agenda for protected areas. The 5th IUCN World Parks Congress
was held in Durban, South Africa from September 8–17, 2004, and was attended by
approximately 3,000 protected area experts, practitioners, and decision makers.
The 5th WPC brought human–wildlife conflict (HWC) to the global stage as
part of an effort to address current challenges facing protected area management and
conservation. The HWC recommendation (included in this issue) was informed
by a technical workshop that was part of the WPC proceedings. The workshop
entitled “Creating Coexistence Between Humans and Wildlife: Global Perspectives
on Local Efforts to Address Human-Wildlife Conflict” combined vigorous
debate on human–wildlife conflict issues with a technical focus on useful outputs
for those working in the profession. The workshop created “a unique opportunity to
take stock [of the issues] … provide an honest appraisal of progress and setbacks;
and chart the course for protected areas over the next decade and beyond”
(IUCN, 2003).
This article summarizes recommendations from the workshop and introduces
the other articles in this special issue of Human Dimensions of Wildlife.
The articles that follow are written by presenters and participants of the “Creating
Address correspondence to Francine Madden, 2001 12th St. NW, Suite 317, Washington,
DC 20009, USA. E-mail: francine_madden@hotmail.com
248 F. Madden
Coexistence” workshop, helping to demonstrate the depth and breadth of the
knowledge and diversity of experiences of those present in Durban.
Workshop Proceedings
The “Creating Coexistence” workshop included approximately 30 practitioners
and professionals from a variety of institutions, disciplines, and geographic
regions. To begin, eight case studies of specific efforts to address HWC involving
a variety of species and settings were presented. Panelists then offered “lessons
learned” for group discussion. Participants also worked as a group to explore
specific challenges in the HWC area, including the potential for creating a “toolbox”
of best practices, the identification of critical needs and gaps that characterize the
HWC field, and the identification of the types of baseline data that need to be
assessed in order to design effective strategies for preventing or mitigating HWC.
Finally, workshop participants considered what, if any, steps were needed for
global cooperation on HWC and drafted a recommendation that was approved.
A collective vision emerged for how conservationists, biologists, social scientists,
practitioners, and researchers should address human–wildlife conflict. Workshop
participants also identified gaps and needs in the field of HWC prevention
and mitigation, including those related to capacity, tools, research, management,
policies, and action. In addition, the workshop produced a formal recommendation
included as WPC Rec 5.20 in the official 5th WPC Durban outputs (included
in this issue). Perhaps most important, the group defined “next steps” for global
work on HWC and made a commitment to move forward as a unified body to
create a framework to develop and apply tools for preventing and mitigating
HWC.
The Problem of Human–Wildlife Conflict
“Human-wildlife conflict occurs when the needs and behavior of wildlife impact
negatively on the goals of humans or when the goals of humans negatively impact
the needs of wildlife. These conflicts may result when wildlife damage crops,
injure or kill domestic animals, threaten or kill people” (WPC Recommendation,
this issue). Such conflict may occur because a lion has attacked someone’s
livestock or a gorilla has raided a person’s crops. The conflict also occurs when a
person or community seeks to kill the lion or gorilla, or when a person retaliates
against the authorities that are in charge of conserving wildlife and its habitat.
HWC escalates when local people feel that the needs or values of wildlife
are given priority over their own needs, or when local institutions and people are
inadequately empowered to deal with the conflict. If protected area authorities
fail to address the needs of the local people or to work with them to address such
conflict adequately, the conflict intensifies, becoming not only conflict between
Creating Coexistence 249
humans and wildlife, but also between humans about wildlife. Frequently, wildlife
conservation initiatives suffer, the economic and social well-being of local people
is impaired, local support for conservation declines, and conservation and development
efforts meant to offset more general “costs” of living near a protected
area may be impeded.
Human–wildlife conflict is increasing in both frequency and severity worldwide
and will likely continue to escalate. Protected areas are increasingly becoming
islands of habitat surrounded by seas of cultivation and development. Wildlife
and humans increasingly compete for space, resources, and places to call home.
Although ecosystem-based approaches (including the development of corridors
between protected areas) offer improved long-term protection for many species
from a biological perspective, they also involve extensive regional opportunities
for interaction and conflict between local people and wildlife. Without
properly addressing HWC in the effort to conserve wildlife and their habitat,
conservation efforts will lose stability and progress, as well as the support of
local communities.
Human–wildlife conflict, as we understand it today, is not always inevitable
and has not been the norm in all cultures and communities. In some communities
and cultures, evidence of human–wildlife co-evolution and cultural tolerance to
wildlife may offer clues as to how coexistence can be achieved elsewhere.
Rationale for a Global Consultation on HWC
Numerous factors, including biological, geographic, political, economic, social,
institutional, financial, cultural, and historical features, make each conflict or
coexistence situation unique. Analysis of conflict cases around the world, however,
suggests that HWC situations involve many similar causes and effects, as well as
trends and challenges. Consequently, there are guiding principles, processes,
tools, and techniques that can be drawn on and adapted for application across a
variety of conflict situations. Local efforts, however, may waste scarce resources
by reinventing solutions that others have already developed successfully elsewhere
or have identified as liable to failure in similar situations. Moreover, local stakeholders
may lack the knowledge or other resources to look beyond their local
situation for effective solutions to HWC. In other cases, they may lack resources
needed to find a solution that lies close to home, within their culture, or in their
own past. Compounding the problem, the expertise or knowledge that does exist
is often possessed by those who are already so committed to their specific
projects that they lack the time, energy, and resources to share their experiences
with others struggling with similar problems.
The “Creating Coexistence” workshop allowed experts and practitioners
(who largely work in isolation from each other), as well as protected area stakeholders
struggling with HWC issues in their specific region, to begin this process
of improved exchange and enhanced action.
250 F. Madden
Lessons Learned and Guiding Principles
Workshop participants agreed on a number of lessons learned including those that
dispel common misconceptions. Several of these are described in this section.
Lesson 1: Human–Wildlife Conflict Often Involves Human–Human
Conflict
The misconceptions and lessons begin with the very definition of HWC. In the
simplest and most concrete sense, HWC is exemplified by a cow killed by a hungry
or habituated tiger, or a tiger killed by an angry herdsman who just lost his cow.
Human–wildlife conflict, however, frequently involves an equally important conflict
between people who have different goals, attitudes, values, feelings, levels of
empowerment, and wealth. Conflict with wildlife may be rooted in struggles
among people over empowerment and access to resources or needs for survival.
The conflict may also stem from people who have different needs or levels of
need, different perspectives on the world in which they live, and questions of
who should have access to resources or control over them. The conflict about
wildlife is between people with historical wounds, cultural misunderstandings,
socioeconomic needs, as well as gaps in trust and communication over how to
conserve wildlife and ensure the well being of people at the same time. This is a
richer, fuller, and more detailed and accurate explanation of the conflict that has
developed.
Lesson 2: Biology is Part of the Solution but not Sufficient in Itself
Biological science alone does not provide a complete understanding of or solutions
to the conflict. In reality, half of the challenge of addressing the conflict is in
understanding the human dimension with its social, cultural, political, economic,
and legal complexities. Perhaps the common report often heard from local
commu