Abstract
1. Introduction
International timekeeping is a combined effort of many national timekeepers that have pushed the tremendous development of time metrology throughout the years [1]. As a major result next-generation optical frequency standards are expected to outperform current microwave atomic clocks by several orders of magnitude and this will likely lead to a redefinition of the SI second [2]. In order to compare and assess such advanced frequency standards it is necessary to develop new and improved methods for inter-continental time and frequency transfer.
Currently operationally used methods like two-way satellite time and frequency transfer (TWSTFT) and the use of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as the global positioning system (GPS) (e.g. [3]) need to be improved in order to be useful for the comparison of next-generation of frequency standards. Methods based on signal transmission via optical fibers seem to be a very promising solution for comparing modern atomic clocks [4]. Network topology and the spatial coverage of fiber cables still restricts this approach although distances of more than 1000 km have been bridged recently [5]. Advanced TWSTFT technology [6] might provide enough precision over inter-continental distances, but depends on the availability of satellite transponders. The future ESA experiment Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES), which will be operated on-board the International Space Station (ISS), appears to be another promising method that can help to establish highly precise inter-continental timing links [7].
Other suitable space-geodetic techniques are satellite laser ranging (SLR) [8] and Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI). In several studies (e.g. [9]) the potential of VLBI for frequency comparisons has been investigated. These studies generally show that VLBI and GPS provide similar frequency transfer stabilities for averaging periods longer than a few hours. For shorter averaging periods the use of VLBI is limited by its low data sampling rate, which results in a low temporal resolution of the clock estimates. Thus VLBI cannot match the short-term capabilities of GPS.
However, in all prior investigations the VLBI and GPS analyses were carried out with individual and independent software packages. Since these analysis packages use slightly different geophysical models, small inconsistencies are caused that impact the comparison of the results derived from the two techniques. Also the fact that the different software packages often use different statistical analysis approaches complicates these comparisons. Some of the analysis packages are based on a simple least-squares estimation process, whereas others make use of sequential/Kalman filtering methods.
In order to overcome the drawback of low temporal resolution of the VLBI clock estimates, one idea is to combine VLBI and GPS data on the observation level and to evaluate whether such a combined solution benefits from the strengths of the individual techniques. In addition, VLBI and GPS single-technique frequency performances can be better compared against each other and with respect to such a combined solution when all processing is handled by one single software package that ensures consistency of the applied geophysical models and the estimation method. Since such an analysis tool has become available (see section 2.2) the potential of VLBI for frequency transfer will be evaluated rigorously in the following.
Abstract1. IntroductionInternational timekeeping is a combined effort of many national timekeepers that have pushed the tremendous development of time metrology throughout the years [1]. As a major result next-generation optical frequency standards are expected to outperform current microwave atomic clocks by several orders of magnitude and this will likely lead to a redefinition of the SI second [2]. In order to compare and assess such advanced frequency standards it is necessary to develop new and improved methods for inter-continental time and frequency transfer.Currently operationally used methods like two-way satellite time and frequency transfer (TWSTFT) and the use of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as the global positioning system (GPS) (e.g. [3]) need to be improved in order to be useful for the comparison of next-generation of frequency standards. Methods based on signal transmission via optical fibers seem to be a very promising solution for comparing modern atomic clocks [4]. Network topology and the spatial coverage of fiber cables still restricts this approach although distances of more than 1000 km have been bridged recently [5]. Advanced TWSTFT technology [6] might provide enough precision over inter-continental distances, but depends on the availability of satellite transponders. The future ESA experiment Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space (ACES), which will be operated on-board the International Space Station (ISS), appears to be another promising method that can help to establish highly precise inter-continental timing links [7].Other suitable space-geodetic techniques are satellite laser ranging (SLR) [8] and Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI). In several studies (e.g. [9]) the potential of VLBI for frequency comparisons has been investigated. These studies generally show that VLBI and GPS provide similar frequency transfer stabilities for averaging periods longer than a few hours. For shorter averaging periods the use of VLBI is limited by its low data sampling rate, which results in a low temporal resolution of the clock estimates. Thus VLBI cannot match the short-term capabilities of GPS.However, in all prior investigations the VLBI and GPS analyses were carried out with individual and independent software packages. Since these analysis packages use slightly different geophysical models, small inconsistencies are caused that impact the comparison of the results derived from the two techniques. Also the fact that the different software packages often use different statistical analysis approaches complicates these comparisons. Some of the analysis packages are based on a simple least-squares estimation process, whereas others make use of sequential/Kalman filtering methods.In order to overcome the drawback of low temporal resolution of the VLBI clock estimates, one idea is to combine VLBI and GPS data on the observation level and to evaluate whether such a combined solution benefits from the strengths of the individual techniques. In addition, VLBI and GPS single-technique frequency performances can be better compared against each other and with respect to such a combined solution when all processing is handled by one single software package that ensures consistency of the applied geophysical models and the estimation method. Since such an analysis tool has become available (see section 2.2) the potential of VLBI for frequency transfer will be evaluated rigorously in the following.
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