The third and fourth columns of Table 1 summarize the findings of our second model, in which OPENNESS is
the independent variable and ODA and GDP are the dependent variables. The first column gives test statistics and
bootstrapped critical values when ODA is taken as the auxiliary variable in the system and the focus is on GDP and
OPENNESS relations. As can be seen from the table, Guinea and Sudan are the only LDCs in which there is
evidence of Granger causality from economic growth to openness to trade. Both coefficients are positive. For the
remaining countries we fail to find a significant causality relation between the two variables.