As we described in chapter 3, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand all had import-substitution regimes that while modest by international standards, nevertheless favored production of manufactured goods for the domestic market at the expense of agriculture and exports. Malaysia was notable for low, if variable, protection of import substitutes, while protection levels in Indonesia and Thailand were higher. All three economies began export-push trade strategies during their periods of protection of the domestic market. Table 6.10, 6.11, and 6.12 provide recent data on the structure of effective protection for these three economies. Effective protection rates are declining but in Indonesia and Thailand they remain sufficiently high to result in some anti-export bias. The free trade regime for ex-porters in these economies partially offsets the structure of protection.