1. Introduction
Under natural conditions, plants are frequently exposed to environmental fluctuations, especially in light intensity. High light levels that exceed the utilization capacity of plants cause a series of events that can ultimately lead to destruction of the photosynthetic apparatus of exposed leaves. The key event in oxidative stress is the photogeneration of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as 1O2, O2 −, H2O2 and OH , following the formation of chlorophyll triplets in the light-harvesting antennae when plants absorb excessive light [1]. To combat photooxidative stress, plants are equipped with a diverse set of photoprotective processes including strategic leaf and chloroplast movements, non-radiative dissipation of absorbed excitation energy, detoxification of chloroplast ROS via intricate antioxidant pathways, repair processes to prevent photodamages, and utilization of excess absorbed light by an array of alternative electron acceptors [2].
Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) is an important photoprotective mechanism that is induced within seconds to minutes upon exposure to excess light [3]. This process dissipates excess absorbed energy as heat, minimizing the excitation pressure on photosystem II (PSII). NPQ is known to depend on three factors: the PsbS protein, the xanthophyll zeaxanthin and the establishment of a pH gradient across the thylakoid membrane [4]. While PsbS is involved specifically in NPQ, zeaxanthin may play a dual role. It may cause quenching of excitation energy, and it has been shown to be an important membrane antioxidant [5] and [6]. When light intensity is high enough to saturate NPQ, direct reduction of O2 at PSI could be an effective strategy to reduce excitation pressure [7] and [8]. However, this process causes the formation of hazardous ROS in the chloroplast. Plants have evolved antioxidant enzymes to scavenge ROS in the photosynthetic apparatus. The O2 − generated by the direct reduction of O2 in the vicinity of photosystem I (PSI) is rapidly converted to H2O2 by superoxide dismutase (SOD), while H2O2 is detoxified by catalase (CAT) in the peroxisome and by ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in the chloroplast. This reaction is accompanied by the production of oxidized ascorbate, which is regenerated by dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) in the presence of glutathione [7].
Like flowers, the leaves of many ornamental plants exhibit a wide variety of colors, such as green, blue and red. Leaf color is an important attribute for marketability and consumer preference. Anthocyanins, which are located in upper epidermis, palisade layers, and lower epidermis, are primarily responsible for red-to-blue leaf coloration [9]. However, the physiological roles of vegetative pigmentation are less clearly understood. Anthocyanins are often produced in vegetative tissues under stressful conditions, such as high light, cold temperatures, nutrient deficiency and pathogen attack [10] and [11]. Previous studies have presented evidence for the ability of anthocyanins to provide photoprotection under stressful conditions. There is evidence that anthocyanins protect the photosynthetic apparatus from photoinhibition by absorbing green light and thereby reducing excess excitation energy [12],[13], [14] and [15]. On the other hand, anthocyanins, which belong to one class of polyphenols, may serve as antioxidants due to their unique chemical structure [16], [17],[18] and [19]. Therefore, anthocyanins may play a photoprotective role by directly eliminating ROS during photooxidative stress. However, not all studies have found strong relationships between anthocyanins and photoprotection. Burger and Edwards [20] found no difference in photoinhibition between red and green Coleus varieties exposed to photoinhibitory treatment. There is even some evidence for increased susceptibility to photoinhibition in anthocyanic leaf areas [21]. In addition, one should also consider that the differential absorption of light wavelength in red and green leaves may lead to differential acclimation to high light, and thus the effects of light shielding could potentially be mixed with those of acclimation.
Begonia semperflorens is one of the most popular bedding plants. Depending on the variety, leaves of B. semperflorens may be green or red. Red-leaf genotypes grow better than green-leaf genotypes under photoinhibitory conditions during summer. In this study, we used two genotypes of B. semperflorens, ‘Cocktail’ (red leaf) and ‘Super Olympia’ (green leaf) to study whether differences in growth could be attributed to photoprotection offered by anthocyanins and, if so, whether this was due to the antioxidant activity or the optical properties of anthocyanins. We also analyzed the interactions between anthocyanins and other photoprotective mechanisms.
1. IntroductionUnder natural conditions, plants are frequently exposed to environmental fluctuations, especially in light intensity. High light levels that exceed the utilization capacity of plants cause a series of events that can ultimately lead to destruction of the photosynthetic apparatus of exposed leaves. The key event in oxidative stress is the photogeneration of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as 1O2, O2 −, H2O2 and OH , following the formation of chlorophyll triplets in the light-harvesting antennae when plants absorb excessive light [1]. To combat photooxidative stress, plants are equipped with a diverse set of photoprotective processes including strategic leaf and chloroplast movements, non-radiative dissipation of absorbed excitation energy, detoxification of chloroplast ROS via intricate antioxidant pathways, repair processes to prevent photodamages, and utilization of excess absorbed light by an array of alternative electron acceptors [2].ไม่ photochemical ชุบ (NPQ) เป็นกลไกที่สำคัญ photoprotective ที่เกิดจากภายในวินาทีนาทีเมื่อสัมผัสกับแสงส่วนเกิน [3] กระบวนการนี้ dissipates ดูดซึมพลังงานส่วนเกินเป็นความร้อน ลดความดันในการกระตุ้น photosystem II (PSII) NPQ เป็นที่รู้จักกันขึ้นอยู่กับปัจจัย 3 ประการ: โปรตีน PsbS, xanthophyll zeaxanthin และสถานประกอบการของการไล่ระดับ pH ในเมมเบรน thylakoid [4] ในขณะที่ PsbS จะเกี่ยวข้องเฉพาะใน NPQ, zeaxanthin อาจเล่นบทบาทคู่ จะทำให้การชุบของพลังงานในการกระตุ้น และการแสดงสารต้านเมมเบรนที่สำคัญ [5] และ [6] เมื่อความเข้มแสงสูงพอที่จะทำ NPQ, O2 ที่ PSI ลดโดยตรงอาจจะเป็นกลยุทธ์ที่มีประสิทธิภาพเพื่อลดความดันในการกระตุ้น [7] และ [8] อย่างไรก็ตาม กระบวนการนี้ทำให้การก่อตัวของอันตราย ROS ในคลอโรพลาสต์ พืชมีพัฒนาให้ scavenge ROS ในเครื่อง photosynthetic เอนไซม์สารต้านอนุมูลอิสระ O2 −สร้าง โดย O2 ลดตรงดี photosystem ฉัน (PSI) อย่างรวดเร็วแปลงเป็น H2O2 โดยซูเปอร์ออกไซด์ dismutase (SOD), ในขณะที่ H2O2 เป็น detoxified โดย catalase (CAT) ใน peroxisome และ ascorbate peroxidase (ให้ APX) ในคลอโรพลาสต์ ปฏิกิริยานี้ตามมา ด้วยการผลิตของตกแต่ง ascorbate ซึ่งสร้าง โดย dehydroascorbate reductase (ดาร์) ในต่อหน้าของกลูตาไธโอน [7]Like flowers, the leaves of many ornamental plants exhibit a wide variety of colors, such as green, blue and red. Leaf color is an important attribute for marketability and consumer preference. Anthocyanins, which are located in upper epidermis, palisade layers, and lower epidermis, are primarily responsible for red-to-blue leaf coloration [9]. However, the physiological roles of vegetative pigmentation are less clearly understood. Anthocyanins are often produced in vegetative tissues under stressful conditions, such as high light, cold temperatures, nutrient deficiency and pathogen attack [10] and [11]. Previous studies have presented evidence for the ability of anthocyanins to provide photoprotection under stressful conditions. There is evidence that anthocyanins protect the photosynthetic apparatus from photoinhibition by absorbing green light and thereby reducing excess excitation energy [12],[13], [14] and [15]. On the other hand, anthocyanins, which belong to one class of polyphenols, may serve as antioxidants due to their unique chemical structure [16], [17],[18] and [19]. Therefore, anthocyanins may play a photoprotective role by directly eliminating ROS during photooxidative stress. However, not all studies have found strong relationships between anthocyanins and photoprotection. Burger and Edwards [20] found no difference in photoinhibition between red and green Coleus varieties exposed to photoinhibitory treatment. There is even some evidence for increased susceptibility to photoinhibition in anthocyanic leaf areas [21]. In addition, one should also consider that the differential absorption of light wavelength in red and green leaves may lead to differential acclimation to high light, and thus the effects of light shielding could potentially be mixed with those of acclimation.Begonia semperflorens is one of the most popular bedding plants. Depending on the variety, leaves of B. semperflorens may be green or red. Red-leaf genotypes grow better than green-leaf genotypes under photoinhibitory conditions during summer. In this study, we used two genotypes of B. semperflorens, ‘Cocktail’ (red leaf) and ‘Super Olympia’ (green leaf) to study whether differences in growth could be attributed to photoprotection offered by anthocyanins and, if so, whether this was due to the antioxidant activity or the optical properties of anthocyanins. We also analyzed the interactions between anthocyanins and other photoprotective mechanisms.
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