2. The ammonia–carbon dioxide FO process
In the ammonia–carbon dioxide forward osmosis process, a semi-permeable membrane is used to separate fresh water from a saline feedwater source. In RO, this separation is driven by a hydraulic pressure gradient across the membrane, generated to a magnitude significantly in excess of the osmotic pressure, which resists this permeate flow. In the absence of excess hydraulic pressure, the direction of water flux would be from the permeate side into the saline feedwater stream. The FO process uses this natural tendency of water to flow in the direction of higher osmotic pressure, to draw water from the saline feed stream into a highly concentrated “draw solution”, thus effectively separating the fresh water permeate from the saline feedwater stream.
In order to achieve effective FO desalination, the draw solution used must have high osmotic pressure and contain solutes which are simple and economic to remove and reuse. In the ammonia– carbon dioxide FO process, the draw solution is composed of ammonium salts formed from the mixture of ammonia and carbon dioxide gases in an aqueous solution. The salt species formed include ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbonate, and ammonium carbamate [3]. Of these, ammonium carbamate is by far the most soluble.
One important characteristic of this draw solution is the ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide present in the ammonium salts. The higher the ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide in the draw solution, the higher the concentration of ammonium carbamate relative to other dissolved species [3,4]. This allows for a higher concentration of total ammonium salts, leading to a higher osmotic pressure within the solution. The maximum solubility of ammonium bicarbonate at room temperature, for instance, is approx. 2 M, but addition of ammonia to such a solution favors the formation of ammonium carbamate (and to a much lesser extent, ammonium carbonate), which allows further carbon dioxide to be added, and so on, allowing much higher total concentrations of ammonium salts to be dissolved. Elevation in solution temperature also leads to some elevation in solute solubility, but the primary mechanism responsible for high draw solution concentrations is the ratio of the gases that form the salts. The generation of high osmotic pressures in turn allows for the generation of both high water fluxes and high feedwater recoveries in the FO desalination process [2,3]
2. The ammonia–carbon dioxide FO process
In the ammonia–carbon dioxide forward osmosis process, a semi-permeable membrane is used to separate fresh water from a saline feedwater source. In RO, this separation is driven by a hydraulic pressure gradient across the membrane, generated to a magnitude significantly in excess of the osmotic pressure, which resists this permeate flow. In the absence of excess hydraulic pressure, the direction of water flux would be from the permeate side into the saline feedwater stream. The FO process uses this natural tendency of water to flow in the direction of higher osmotic pressure, to draw water from the saline feed stream into a highly concentrated “draw solution”, thus effectively separating the fresh water permeate from the saline feedwater stream.
In order to achieve effective FO desalination, the draw solution used must have high osmotic pressure and contain solutes which are simple and economic to remove and reuse. In the ammonia– carbon dioxide FO process, the draw solution is composed of ammonium salts formed from the mixture of ammonia and carbon dioxide gases in an aqueous solution. The salt species formed include ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbonate, and ammonium carbamate [3]. Of these, ammonium carbamate is by far the most soluble.
One important characteristic of this draw solution is the ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide present in the ammonium salts. The higher the ratio of ammonia to carbon dioxide in the draw solution, the higher the concentration of ammonium carbamate relative to other dissolved species [3,4]. This allows for a higher concentration of total ammonium salts, leading to a higher osmotic pressure within the solution. The maximum solubility of ammonium bicarbonate at room temperature, for instance, is approx. 2 M, but addition of ammonia to such a solution favors the formation of ammonium carbamate (and to a much lesser extent, ammonium carbonate), which allows further carbon dioxide to be added, and so on, allowing much higher total concentrations of ammonium salts to be dissolved. Elevation in solution temperature also leads to some elevation in solute solubility, but the primary mechanism responsible for high draw solution concentrations is the ratio of the gases that form the salts. The generation of high osmotic pressures in turn allows for the generation of both high water fluxes and high feedwater recoveries in the FO desalination process [2,3]
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