chains and as trade networks continue to expand and become more dispersed. Financial links have also strengthened in recent years. The median exposure of advanced economies to emerging market economies, measured as gross external asset holdings, reached 8.7 percent of GDP in 2012—an increase of almost 3.5 percentage points of GDP from the median value in 1997 (Figure 2.SF.2). Although financial exposure remains concentrated in bank claims, exposure through portfolio investment has increased, particularly in equity investment. Not surprisingly, advanced economies that are financial centers have seen the largest increase in exposures to emerging market economies. In the United Kingdom, bank claims on these economies currently represent 14 percent of total foreign bank claims, up from just 4 percent a decade ago. It is important to note that because the United Kingdom is a major financial center, gross financial exposures could overstate actual financial linkages between the United Kingdom and emerging markets.4 Advanced economies with large exposures to emerging market economies could be susceptible to significant valuation and wealth effects resulting from sharp movements in asset prices and currencies in these economies. Given that large output drops in emerging market economies have often preceded past default episodes (Levy-Yeyati and Panizza, 2011), increased economic turbulence in those economies, coupled with bad memories of past crises, could sour investors’ risk sentiment and result in sharp corrections in global financial centers. Advanced economies could also be vulnerable to a sudden reduction in demand from emerging market economies for their debt instruments. China is the second-largest exporter of capital in the world, after the United States, and China’s central bank is the
4In addition, most of these claims are held by two banks that, although notionally British, have very limited banking presence in the United Kingdom. This could overstate the financial exposure of the United Kingdom to emerging market economies.
largest purchaser of U.S. financial assets. (See the April 2013 Global Financial Stability Report.) A shock to emerging market economies capable of slowing the pace of reserves accumulation in China or causing a sell-off of its reserves in an attempt to defend its currency could affect advanced economies by raising their long-term yields. Long-term yields in the United States and other advanced economies could also rise if China gradually changes its portfolio away from U.S. to emerging market treasuries (IMF, 2011b). Spillover Effects on Advanced Economies during Previous Episodes of Financial Turbulence in Emerging Market Economies To obtain some order of magnitude of the effects from past spillovers, an event study is conducted around past episodes with synchronized growth slowdowns in emerging market economies: the Mexican Tequila crisis in 1995, the east Asian crisis in 1997, and the Russian crisis in 1998.5 The analysis focuses on the dynamics of trade and financial variables during a four-quarter window after the realization of each event.6 Results suggest that during episodes of financial turmoil, import demand in emerging market economies was an important spillover channel, particularly during the east Asian and Russian crises (Figure 2.SF.3). During these events, bilateral real exports contracted by at least one standard deviation from their 15-year average. Japanese exports have been particularly vulnerable to shocks stemming from emerging market economies, which could be explained by Japan’s high trade interconnectedness with emerging market economies in east Asia and the high share of capital goods in its export structure. Although imports from emerging market economies have also tended to decline during these episodes, partly as a result of supply-chain disruptions, reductions have been more moderate. The behavior of exports around these events could be explained by the dynamics of bilateral nominal exchange rates, with
5The analysis starts in 1990 because of data limitations for emerging market economies. The 1995 Mexican Tequila crisis, the 1997 east Asian crisis, and the 1998 Russian crisis could be characterized as events in emerging market economies that, to a certain extent, were unrelated to developments in advanced economies. The dates of the events are obtained from the chronology in Laeven and Valencia (2012). 6With the exception of the analysis of the dynamics of stock market indexes, in which the behavior of these indexes is examined three months after the realization of each event.
currencies in advanced economies appreciating, on average, more than 20 percent, 1½ standard deviations above their mean. The strengthening of advanced economies’ currencies also points to a flight-to-safety scenario, as evidenced by large spikes in portfolio inflows. In addition, dynamics of stock market price indexes in advanced economies show that shocks from emerging market economies can be transmitted via financial markets, most notably in Japan and the euro area. The east Asian crisis stands out in the brief event analysis because it was triggered by a common shock whose effect on regional comovements was almost as large as that of the global financial crisis (Chapter 3 of the October 2013 WEO). What was the spillover effect of a shock of the magnitude of the east Asian crisis on Japan’s output growth?7 An informal estimate suggests that the 15 percent drop in exports in Japan during the east Asian crisis could have represented a 0.3 percentage point decline in Japan’s real GDP growth, given that Japanese exports to emerging markets were 2 percent of GDP in 1997. A similar shock in 2012 would have implied a much larger decline in output growth (that is, 0.8 percentage point), because the share of exports to emerging market economies in Japan’s GDP has more than doubled since the east Asian crisis. Quantifying the Spillover Effects of Emerging Market Economy Growth Shocks on Advanced Economies’ GDP The impact of a growth shock in emerging market economies on advanced economies is estimated using a standard vector-auto regression-based (VAR-based) approach and through simulations from a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model. These estimates are much more informative than the simple informal calculations reported earlier. The first element of the empirical analysis involves estimating country-wise VARs for each advanced economy with the following recursive specification: the growth rate of output of all advanced economies excluding the advanced economy for which the VAR is estimated, the growth rate of output in the advanced economy of interest, the growth rate of output in emerging market economies, and the growth rate of 7 Japan experienced its own banking crisis in 1997–98; therefore the large growth spillover impact on Japan during the east Asian crisis should be interpreted cautiously. real bilateral exports from the advanced economy of interest to emerging market economies. Because the global financial crisis was an exceptional event with unusual effects, a modified version of the VAR model is also estimated. In this modified version, the regressors are also allowed to interact with a dummy variable that equals one from the last quarter in 2007 to the first quarter in 2009 and zero otherwise.8 The spillover effects on advanced economies of a 1 percentage point drop in the GDP growth of emerging market economies range from a 0.15 percentage point drop in output growth in the United Kingdom to a 0.5 percentage point decline in Japan (Figure 2.SF.4). In line with the findings discussed in the event study analysis, results from the empirical exercise suggest that the impact of shocks to emerging market economies’ output on advanced economies’ output is significant (both economically and statistically) in Japan and the euro area.9 Based on the decomposition of the responses of advanced economies’ GDP growth, it appears that the trade channel is particularly important for the transmission of shocks to Japan, whereas nontrade effects seem to dominate in other advanced economies. 10 Results from the interaction VAR estimation show that, when the global financial crisis is controlled for—that is, when the dummy is equal to zero—elasticities are reduced by half (except in the case of the United Kingdom) and spillovers are neither statistically nor economically significant across advanced economies. The results from the simple VAR analysis illustrate the magnitude of possible spillover effects; however, they do not identify the sources of the growth slowdown, which matter for the spillovers. Different spillover transmission channels may be involved, depending on the nature of the shock.
8The country-wise VARs are estimated using seasonally adjusted quarterly data from 1996 through 2013, with two lags based on the Akaike information criterion. The second specification implements an interaction VAR framework introduced by Towbin and Weber (2013). 9The large effect observed in Japan could reflect a banking crisis experienced at the same time as the east Asian crisis and the use of gross instead of value-added real bilateral exports in the VAR analysis. As discussed earlier, gross trade linkages tend to overstate direct trade exposures to emerging market economies in countries with an upstream position in global trade networks. 10The nontrade transmission channel corresponds to the estimated responses of GDP growth in advanced economies using the full VAR dynamics, but with real bilateral exports treated as an exogenous variable (that is, the GDP growth equation coefficients on real bilateral exports set to zero).
chains and as trade networks continue to expand and become more dispersed. Financial links have also strengthened in recent years. The median exposure of advanced economies to emerging market economies, measured as gross external asset holdings, reached 8.7 percent of GDP in 2012—an increase of almost 3.5 percentage points of GDP from the median value in 1997 (Figure 2.SF.2). Although financial exposure remains concentrated in bank claims, exposure through portfolio investment has increased, particularly in equity investment. Not surprisingly, advanced economies that are financial centers have seen the largest increase in exposures to emerging market economies. In the United Kingdom, bank claims on these economies currently represent 14 percent of total foreign bank claims, up from just 4 percent a decade ago. It is important to note that because the United Kingdom is a major financial center, gross financial exposures could overstate actual financial linkages between the United Kingdom and emerging markets.4 Advanced economies with large exposures to emerging market economies could be susceptible to significant valuation and wealth effects resulting from sharp movements in asset prices and currencies in these economies. Given that large output drops in emerging market economies have often preceded past default episodes (Levy-Yeyati and Panizza, 2011), increased economic turbulence in those economies, coupled with bad memories of past crises, could sour investors’ risk sentiment and result in sharp corrections in global financial centers. Advanced economies could also be vulnerable to a sudden reduction in demand from emerging market economies for their debt instruments. China is the second-largest exporter of capital in the world, after the United States, and China’s central bank is the
4In addition, most of these claims are held by two banks that, although notionally British, have very limited banking presence in the United Kingdom. This could overstate the financial exposure of the United Kingdom to emerging market economies.
largest purchaser of U.S. financial assets. (See the April 2013 Global Financial Stability Report.) A shock to emerging market economies capable of slowing the pace of reserves accumulation in China or causing a sell-off of its reserves in an attempt to defend its currency could affect advanced economies by raising their long-term yields. Long-term yields in the United States and other advanced economies could also rise if China gradually changes its portfolio away from U.S. to emerging market treasuries (IMF, 2011b). Spillover Effects on Advanced Economies during Previous Episodes of Financial Turbulence in Emerging Market Economies To obtain some order of magnitude of the effects from past spillovers, an event study is conducted around past episodes with synchronized growth slowdowns in emerging market economies: the Mexican Tequila crisis in 1995, the east Asian crisis in 1997, and the Russian crisis in 1998.5 The analysis focuses on the dynamics of trade and financial variables during a four-quarter window after the realization of each event.6 Results suggest that during episodes of financial turmoil, import demand in emerging market economies was an important spillover channel, particularly during the east Asian and Russian crises (Figure 2.SF.3). During these events, bilateral real exports contracted by at least one standard deviation from their 15-year average. Japanese exports have been particularly vulnerable to shocks stemming from emerging market economies, which could be explained by Japan’s high trade interconnectedness with emerging market economies in east Asia and the high share of capital goods in its export structure. Although imports from emerging market economies have also tended to decline during these episodes, partly as a result of supply-chain disruptions, reductions have been more moderate. The behavior of exports around these events could be explained by the dynamics of bilateral nominal exchange rates, with
5The analysis starts in 1990 because of data limitations for emerging market economies. The 1995 Mexican Tequila crisis, the 1997 east Asian crisis, and the 1998 Russian crisis could be characterized as events in emerging market economies that, to a certain extent, were unrelated to developments in advanced economies. The dates of the events are obtained from the chronology in Laeven and Valencia (2012). 6With the exception of the analysis of the dynamics of stock market indexes, in which the behavior of these indexes is examined three months after the realization of each event.
currencies in advanced economies appreciating, on average, more than 20 percent, 1½ standard deviations above their mean. The strengthening of advanced economies’ currencies also points to a flight-to-safety scenario, as evidenced by large spikes in portfolio inflows. In addition, dynamics of stock market price indexes in advanced economies show that shocks from emerging market economies can be transmitted via financial markets, most notably in Japan and the euro area. The east Asian crisis stands out in the brief event analysis because it was triggered by a common shock whose effect on regional comovements was almost as large as that of the global financial crisis (Chapter 3 of the October 2013 WEO). What was the spillover effect of a shock of the magnitude of the east Asian crisis on Japan’s output growth?7 An informal estimate suggests that the 15 percent drop in exports in Japan during the east Asian crisis could have represented a 0.3 percentage point decline in Japan’s real GDP growth, given that Japanese exports to emerging markets were 2 percent of GDP in 1997. A similar shock in 2012 would have implied a much larger decline in output growth (that is, 0.8 percentage point), because the share of exports to emerging market economies in Japan’s GDP has more than doubled since the east Asian crisis. Quantifying the Spillover Effects of Emerging Market Economy Growth Shocks on Advanced Economies’ GDP The impact of a growth shock in emerging market economies on advanced economies is estimated using a standard vector-auto regression-based (VAR-based) approach and through simulations from a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model. These estimates are much more informative than the simple informal calculations reported earlier. The first element of the empirical analysis involves estimating country-wise VARs for each advanced economy with the following recursive specification: the growth rate of output of all advanced economies excluding the advanced economy for which the VAR is estimated, the growth rate of output in the advanced economy of interest, the growth rate of output in emerging market economies, and the growth rate of 7 Japan experienced its own banking crisis in 1997–98; therefore the large growth spillover impact on Japan during the east Asian crisis should be interpreted cautiously. real bilateral exports from the advanced economy of interest to emerging market economies. Because the global financial crisis was an exceptional event with unusual effects, a modified version of the VAR model is also estimated. In this modified version, the regressors are also allowed to interact with a dummy variable that equals one from the last quarter in 2007 to the first quarter in 2009 and zero otherwise.8 The spillover effects on advanced economies of a 1 percentage point drop in the GDP growth of emerging market economies range from a 0.15 percentage point drop in output growth in the United Kingdom to a 0.5 percentage point decline in Japan (Figure 2.SF.4). In line with the findings discussed in the event study analysis, results from the empirical exercise suggest that the impact of shocks to emerging market economies’ output on advanced economies’ output is significant (both economically and statistically) in Japan and the euro area.9 Based on the decomposition of the responses of advanced economies’ GDP growth, it appears that the trade channel is particularly important for the transmission of shocks to Japan, whereas nontrade effects seem to dominate in other advanced economies. 10 Results from the interaction VAR estimation show that, when the global financial crisis is controlled for—that is, when the dummy is equal to zero—elasticities are reduced by half (except in the case of the United Kingdom) and spillovers are neither statistically nor economically significant across advanced economies. The results from the simple VAR analysis illustrate the magnitude of possible spillover effects; however, they do not identify the sources of the growth slowdown, which matter for the spillovers. Different spillover transmission channels may be involved, depending on the nature of the shock.
8The country-wise VARs are estimated using seasonally adjusted quarterly data from 1996 through 2013, with two lags based on the Akaike information criterion. The second specification implements an interaction VAR framework introduced by Towbin and Weber (2013). 9The large effect observed in Japan could reflect a banking crisis experienced at the same time as the east Asian crisis and the use of gross instead of value-added real bilateral exports in the VAR analysis. As discussed earlier, gross trade linkages tend to overstate direct trade exposures to emerging market economies in countries with an upstream position in global trade networks. 10The nontrade transmission channel corresponds to the estimated responses of GDP growth in advanced economies using the full VAR dynamics, but with real bilateral exports treated as an exogenous variable (that is, the GDP growth equation coefficients on real bilateral exports set to zero).
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chains and as trade networks continue to expand and become more dispersed. Financial links have also strengthened in recent years. The median exposure of advanced economies to emerging market economies, measured as gross external asset holdings, reached 8.7 percent of GDP in 2012—an increase of almost 3.5 percentage points of GDP from the median value in 1997 (Figure 2.SF.2).แม้ว่าความเสี่ยงทางการเงินยังคงเข้มข้นในการเรียกร้องผ่านธนาคาร การเปิดรับการลงทุนได้เพิ่มขึ้น โดยเฉพาะการลงทุนในหุ้น ไม่น่าแปลกใจ , เศรษฐกิจขั้นสูงที่ศูนย์การเงินได้เห็นการเพิ่มขึ้นที่ใหญ่ที่สุดในธุรกิจกับเศรษฐกิจตลาดเกิดใหม่ ในสหราชอาณาจักร bank claims on these economies currently represent 14 percent of total foreign bank claims, up from just 4 percent a decade ago. It is important to note that because the United Kingdom is a major financial center, gross financial exposures could overstate actual financial linkages between the United Kingdom and emerging markets.4 Advanced economies with large exposures to emerging market economies could be susceptible to significant valuation and wealth effects resulting from sharp movements in asset prices and currencies in these economies. Given that large output drops in emerging market economies have often preceded past default episodes (Levy-Yeyati and Panizza, 2011), increased economic turbulence in those economies, coupled with bad memories of past crises, could sour investors’ risk sentiment and result in sharp corrections in global financial centers. Advanced economies could also be vulnerable to a sudden reduction in demand from emerging market economies for their debt instruments. China is the second-largest exporter of capital in the world, after the United States, and China’s central bank is the
4In addition, most of these claims are held by two banks that, although notionally British, have very limited banking presence in the United Kingdom. This could overstate the financial exposure of the United Kingdom to emerging market economies.
largest purchaser of U.S. financial assets.( เห็นเมษายน 2013 ทั่วโลกเสถียรภาพทางการเงินรายงาน ) อัพให้เศรษฐกิจสามารถชะลอความเร็วของสำรองสะสมในประเทศจีนหรือก่อให้เกิดการขายปิดของสงวนในความพยายามที่จะปกป้องสกุลเงินอาจส่งผลกระทบต่อเศรษฐกิจที่ทันสมัย โดยการเพิ่ม ผลผลิตระยะยาว Long-term yields in the United States and other advanced economies could also rise if China gradually changes its portfolio away from U.S. to emerging market treasuries (IMF, 2011b). Spillover Effects on Advanced Economies during Previous Episodes of Financial Turbulence in Emerging Market Economies To obtain some order of magnitude of the effects from past spillovers,กิจกรรมการศึกษาจะดำเนินการรอบตอนที่ผ่านมาตรงกับการเจริญเติบโตชะลอตัวในระบบเศรษฐกิจตลาดเกิดใหม่ : วิกฤต Tequila เม็กซิกันใน 1995 , วิกฤติเอเชียตะวันออกในปี 1997 และวิกฤติของรัสเซียใน 1998.5 การวิเคราะห์มุ่งเน้นการเปลี่ยนแปลงของตัวแปรการค้าและการเงินระหว่างหน้าต่างสี่ไตรมาสหลังจากสำนึกของแต่ละเหตุการณ์6 พบว่าช่วงตอนของความวุ่นวายทางการเงิน ความต้องการนำเข้าในประเทศตลาดเกิดใหม่ คือ ช่องทางการสำคัญ โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งในช่วงวิกฤตเอเชียตะวันออก และรัสเซีย ( รูป 2 . SF 3 ) ในระหว่างเหตุการณ์เหล่านี้ ส่งออกไทยหดตัวจริง อย่างน้อยหนึ่งส่วนเบี่ยงเบนมาตรฐานเฉลี่ย 15 ปี
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