Yet the family disputes about the imperial succession and the
Netherlands were not only the Habsburgs’ concern. Even after the
dynasty had effectively split into Caroline and Fernandine branches and
the Netherlands had fallen indisputably to Philip (while the empire eluded
him), ties between the social and political elites of both realms remained
strong. In fact, they had been strengthened during Charles’s reign.
Netherlandish aristocrats such as William and the Counts of Egmont and
Horn all had considerable ties to imperial princely families. In 1544, during
the build-up to the Schmalkaldic Wars (1547), Charles had encouraged
Egmont’s marriage to a Wittelsbach princess as part of his alliance with the
Duke of Bavaria against the Schmalkaldic League.44 The Count of Horn was
married to a German countess as well. His marriage was more limited in
territorial scope, however, mainly strengthening ties in the Ghelders Empire
border area.45 Other high-profile aristocrats also had strong ties to the
empire. The Duke of Aerschot and his brother had been raised alongside
Maximilian at the Viennese court, while the Count of Mansfeld was
a member of a German ruling dynasty; his brother Johan Gebhart of
Mansfeld was Archbishop-Elector of Cologne from 1558 to 1562. TheCount of Aremberg was tied by marriage to several German families.46 In
short, the Netherlandish elite was closely bound to the imperial elite.
The fluid boundaries between the Low Countries and the empire at an
aristocratic level may be illustrated by the designations used for the Knights
of the Order of the Golden Fleece, of which all nobles mentioned above were
members.47 William of Orange was counted as a Netherlandish knight. This
could be justified by his extensive holdings in the Netherlands. But others,
far more German than the Prince of Orange, were also called Netherlandish:
Peter Ernst of Mansfeld and Johann of East Frisia.48 They were both younger
brothers of German territorial rulers whose services to Charles V had been
rewarded with a governorship in the Netherlands. Only this office warranted
their characterization as Netherlandish: in terms of place of birth they
were clearly German. This blurred distinction between Germans and
Netherlanders was mirrored by the Low Countries inhabitants’ long
standing as Germans. In fact, their part of the globe was commonly
referred to as Germania inferior, Nider teutschelant, and Alamagna Bassa.49
Although an exclusively Netherlandish national identity was taking shape
during the sixteenth century,50 no such distinction between Netherlandish
and German was apparent at the level of the court aristocracy.
The Netherlandish aristocracy was thus used to thinking of the empire
as an important stage for their political activities and their marriages, despite
Charles V’s division of his inheritance between his son and brother. Charles
himself had done much to strengthen the ties between the Netherlandish
and German elites. And precisely because the split in the Habsburg family
took years to play itself out, it was not immediately clear to these
Netherlandish-German nobles that this would affect their own position.
We can see this at work in the case of William of Orange, who cherished his
German ties, and we can examine how the division of the Habsburg
inheritance affected his position and that of his family. William’s ties to the
empire were particularly strong, and there are some indications that he
thought of the empire as his fatherland. As late as 1568, while in exile in hisnative Nassau, William spoke of the Netherlands as a country ‘‘to which we
are indebted almost as much as our own fatherland.’’51
The House of Nassau was also a German line with an international
scope, albeit on a more modest scale than the Habsburgs. According to
German customs, divisions occurred whenever several adult sons survived
their father. The family had split into several lines by the fifteenth century.
The Ottonian line became entangled with the Low Countries when
Engelbert of Nassau (1370/80–1442) married the Netherlands heiress
Johanna of Polanen (1392–1445) in 1403. This established the
Netherlandish Nassau-Breda line as distinct from the German Nassau-
Dillenburg line. Since the Brabantine line did not always provide a male
heir, the German branch frequently stepped in to claim the Netherlandish
holdings, but the patrimonies were never united.52 Contacts between the
lines were frequent, if only because the heads of the houses were often
brothers. Also, the Nassau-Breda marriage policy in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries continued to have a strong orientation toward the
empire. Some Netherlandish marriages were brokered, endowing the Breda
line with even more holdings in the Low Countries, but Germany remained
an important source of brides,53 even as the Netherlandish interests of the
family grew. In this respect, William of Orange followed his family’s
tradition closely, first marrying a Netherlandish heiress and then a Germanelectoral princess, both marriages contracted on the advice of his German
relatives.54
However, as the importance of the Breda line grew, and religious
divisions widened when the Dillenburg-Nassaus accepted Lutheranism,
Dillenburg successions in the Netherlands were sometimes problematic.
When the head of the Nassau-Breda family, Rene´ of Chalon, fell during the
siege of Saint-Dizier in 1544, his uncle, Count Wilhelm of Nassau-
Dillenburg (1487–1559), was his next of kin. But because the count was
Lutheran, it was decided the inheritance should go to his eldest sonWilliam—
the future William of Orange—on the condition that he leave his parental
home to receive a Catholic education at the Habsburg court.55
Despite this new division of the Nassau family, William of Orange,
who had forfeited his rights to rule Dillenburg in order to claim the
Netherlandish patrimony, clearly saw himself as the head of both families.
He regarded the House of Nassau as an undivided entity, as he wrote to one
of his younger brothers on the death of their father in 1559: ‘‘We must
follow in the footsteps of our father, so that our house, which has always
enjoyed so much fame and respect with God’s help, will not perish, but
rather will be even more respectable.’’56 He speaks only of ‘‘our house’’ in this
letter, seemingly denying the partition that was agreed upon in 1557.57
Instead, he urges his brothers to remain united and promises them his
support. Revealingly, William addresses his letter to his second eldest
brother Louis (1538–74), not to his eldest brother John (1536–1606), who
succeeded their father as ruling Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, and was
therefore the head of the German branch.
The Nassau-Breda line had developed a strong tradition of service to
their Burgundian and Habsburg lords. In particular, Hendrik of Nassau and
his son Rene´ of Chalon were ardent supporters of Charles V, and both were
handsomely rewarded for their services. The Nassaus became part of a very
small number of families that managed to monopolize the major offices in
the Netherlands.58 Chalon’s heir, William of Orange, duly profited: as he
came of age, he had a strong claim to power and prestige in the Netherlands.
Recognizing this claim, Philip appointed him as a councillor of state andKnight of the Golden Fleece at age twenty-two, and as provincial governor at
twenty-six.59 Before the age of thirty William had taken center stage in the
Low Countries, and he clearly felt it was his birthright to dominate Brussels
politics: when he felt his voice was not heard enough in the Council of State,
he wrote an indignant letter to Philip, stressing that not being taken seriously
in the council was an unacceptable blow to his ‘‘honor and reputation.’’60
The Nassaus and the Habsburgs had a few things in common. Most
importantly, they were both focused on the Netherlands and the empire.
Charles V was both Lord of the Netherlands and emperor, and he
encouraged his vassals’ dynastic ties between the two dominions as well.
The Nassaus mirrored the Habsburgs’ dynastic geographical span by
establishing a Netherlandish and a German line as well. As such, they
could provide the social glue for Charles’s composite state. Several other
factors were important for both families: the maintenance of good relations
with the other branches; the provision of inheritances for younger sons; and
their international interests, both political and marital. However, outside
influences played an important part in the direction of both families’
fortunes. In the case of Habsburg successions in Spain and the Netherlands,
representative organs were involved, either by making demands about the
upbringing of the heir or by accepting changes in succession laws. Both
Philip’s and William’s educations were influenced heavily by conditions
determined by their father’s succession to the family patrimony. According
to Georg Schmidt, the emperor gave William of Orange a prominent role in
his abdication because William represented par excellence the union of
Charles’s domains.61 It certainly seems clear that the dynastic interests of
both the Nassaus and the Habsburgs converged considerably, which brought
about a close political relationship.
Yet the family disputes about the imperial succession and the
Netherlands were not only the Habsburgs’ concern. Even after the
dynasty had effectively split into Caroline and Fernandine branches and
the Netherlands had fallen indisputably to Philip (while the empire eluded
him), ties between the social and political elites of both realms remained
strong. In fact, they had been strengthened during Charles’s reign.
Netherlandish aristocrats such as William and the Counts of Egmont and
Horn all had considerable ties to imperial princely families. In 1544, during
the build-up to the Schmalkaldic Wars (1547), Charles had encouraged
Egmont’s marriage to a Wittelsbach princess as part of his alliance with the
Duke of Bavaria against the Schmalkaldic League.44 The Count of Horn was
married to a German countess as well. His marriage was more limited in
territorial scope, however, mainly strengthening ties in the Ghelders Empire
border area.45 Other high-profile aristocrats also had strong ties to the
empire. The Duke of Aerschot and his brother had been raised alongside
Maximilian at the Viennese court, while the Count of Mansfeld was
a member of a German ruling dynasty; his brother Johan Gebhart of
Mansfeld was Archbishop-Elector of Cologne from 1558 to 1562. TheCount of Aremberg was tied by marriage to several German families.46 In
short, the Netherlandish elite was closely bound to the imperial elite.
The fluid boundaries between the Low Countries and the empire at an
aristocratic level may be illustrated by the designations used for the Knights
of the Order of the Golden Fleece, of which all nobles mentioned above were
members.47 William of Orange was counted as a Netherlandish knight. This
could be justified by his extensive holdings in the Netherlands. But others,
far more German than the Prince of Orange, were also called Netherlandish:
Peter Ernst of Mansfeld and Johann of East Frisia.48 They were both younger
brothers of German territorial rulers whose services to Charles V had been
rewarded with a governorship in the Netherlands. Only this office warranted
their characterization as Netherlandish: in terms of place of birth they
were clearly German. This blurred distinction between Germans and
Netherlanders was mirrored by the Low Countries inhabitants’ long
standing as Germans. In fact, their part of the globe was commonly
referred to as Germania inferior, Nider teutschelant, and Alamagna Bassa.49
Although an exclusively Netherlandish national identity was taking shape
during the sixteenth century,50 no such distinction between Netherlandish
and German was apparent at the level of the court aristocracy.
The Netherlandish aristocracy was thus used to thinking of the empire
as an important stage for their political activities and their marriages, despite
Charles V’s division of his inheritance between his son and brother. Charles
himself had done much to strengthen the ties between the Netherlandish
and German elites. And precisely because the split in the Habsburg family
took years to play itself out, it was not immediately clear to these
Netherlandish-German nobles that this would affect their own position.
We can see this at work in the case of William of Orange, who cherished his
German ties, and we can examine how the division of the Habsburg
inheritance affected his position and that of his family. William’s ties to the
empire were particularly strong, and there are some indications that he
thought of the empire as his fatherland. As late as 1568, while in exile in hisnative Nassau, William spoke of the Netherlands as a country ‘‘to which we
are indebted almost as much as our own fatherland.’’51
The House of Nassau was also a German line with an international
scope, albeit on a more modest scale than the Habsburgs. According to
German customs, divisions occurred whenever several adult sons survived
their father. The family had split into several lines by the fifteenth century.
The Ottonian line became entangled with the Low Countries when
Engelbert of Nassau (1370/80–1442) married the Netherlands heiress
Johanna of Polanen (1392–1445) in 1403. This established the
Netherlandish Nassau-Breda line as distinct from the German Nassau-
Dillenburg line. Since the Brabantine line did not always provide a male
heir, the German branch frequently stepped in to claim the Netherlandish
holdings, but the patrimonies were never united.52 Contacts between the
lines were frequent, if only because the heads of the houses were often
brothers. Also, the Nassau-Breda marriage policy in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries continued to have a strong orientation toward the
empire. Some Netherlandish marriages were brokered, endowing the Breda
line with even more holdings in the Low Countries, but Germany remained
an important source of brides,53 even as the Netherlandish interests of the
family grew. In this respect, William of Orange followed his family’s
tradition closely, first marrying a Netherlandish heiress and then a Germanelectoral princess, both marriages contracted on the advice of his German
relatives.54
However, as the importance of the Breda line grew, and religious
divisions widened when the Dillenburg-Nassaus accepted Lutheranism,
Dillenburg successions in the Netherlands were sometimes problematic.
When the head of the Nassau-Breda family, Rene´ of Chalon, fell during the
siege of Saint-Dizier in 1544, his uncle, Count Wilhelm of Nassau-
Dillenburg (1487–1559), was his next of kin. But because the count was
Lutheran, it was decided the inheritance should go to his eldest sonWilliam—
the future William of Orange—on the condition that he leave his parental
home to receive a Catholic education at the Habsburg court.55
Despite this new division of the Nassau family, William of Orange,
who had forfeited his rights to rule Dillenburg in order to claim the
Netherlandish patrimony, clearly saw himself as the head of both families.
He regarded the House of Nassau as an undivided entity, as he wrote to one
of his younger brothers on the death of their father in 1559: ‘‘We must
follow in the footsteps of our father, so that our house, which has always
enjoyed so much fame and respect with God’s help, will not perish, but
rather will be even more respectable.’’56 He speaks only of ‘‘our house’’ in this
letter, seemingly denying the partition that was agreed upon in 1557.57
Instead, he urges his brothers to remain united and promises them his
support. Revealingly, William addresses his letter to his second eldest
brother Louis (1538–74), not to his eldest brother John (1536–1606), who
succeeded their father as ruling Count of Nassau-Dillenburg, and was
therefore the head of the German branch.
The Nassau-Breda line had developed a strong tradition of service to
their Burgundian and Habsburg lords. In particular, Hendrik of Nassau and
his son Rene´ of Chalon were ardent supporters of Charles V, and both were
handsomely rewarded for their services. The Nassaus became part of a very
small number of families that managed to monopolize the major offices in
the Netherlands.58 Chalon’s heir, William of Orange, duly profited: as he
came of age, he had a strong claim to power and prestige in the Netherlands.
Recognizing this claim, Philip appointed him as a councillor of state andKnight of the Golden Fleece at age twenty-two, and as provincial governor at
twenty-six.59 Before the age of thirty William had taken center stage in the
Low Countries, and he clearly felt it was his birthright to dominate Brussels
politics: when he felt his voice was not heard enough in the Council of State,
he wrote an indignant letter to Philip, stressing that not being taken seriously
in the council was an unacceptable blow to his ‘‘honor and reputation.’’60
The Nassaus and the Habsburgs had a few things in common. Most
importantly, they were both focused on the Netherlands and the empire.
Charles V was both Lord of the Netherlands and emperor, and he
encouraged his vassals’ dynastic ties between the two dominions as well.
The Nassaus mirrored the Habsburgs’ dynastic geographical span by
establishing a Netherlandish and a German line as well. As such, they
could provide the social glue for Charles’s composite state. Several other
factors were important for both families: the maintenance of good relations
with the other branches; the provision of inheritances for younger sons; and
their international interests, both political and marital. However, outside
influences played an important part in the direction of both families’
fortunes. In the case of Habsburg successions in Spain and the Netherlands,
representative organs were involved, either by making demands about the
upbringing of the heir or by accepting changes in succession laws. Both
Philip’s and William’s educations were influenced heavily by conditions
determined by their father’s succession to the family patrimony. According
to Georg Schmidt, the emperor gave William of Orange a prominent role in
his abdication because William represented par excellence the union of
Charles’s domains.61 It certainly seems clear that the dynastic interests of
both the Nassaus and the Habsburgs converged considerably, which brought
about a close political relationship.
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