Dressings and Products in Pediatric Wound Care
Alice King,1,,2 Judith J. Stellar,3 Anne Blevins,1 and Kara Noelle Shah1,,4,,5,*
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Abstract
Significance: The increasing complexity of medical and surgical care provided to pediatric patients has resulted in a population at significant risk for complications such as pressure ulcers, nonhealing surgical wounds, and moisture-associated skin damage. Wound care practices for neonatal and pediatric patients, including the choice of specific dressings or other wound care products, are currently based on a combination of provider experience and preference and a small number of published clinical guidelines based on expert opinion; rigorous evidence-based clinical guidelines for wound management in these populations is lacking.
Recent Advances: Advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of wound healing have contributed to an ever-increasing number of specialized wound care products, most of which are predominantly marketed to adult patients and that have not been evaluated for safety and efficacy in the neonatal and pediatric populations. This review aims to discuss the available data on the use of both more traditional wound care products and newer wound care technologies in these populations, including medical-grade honey, nanocrystalline silver, and soft silicone-based adhesive technology.
Critical Issues: Evidence-based wound care practices and demonstration of the safety, efficacy, and appropriate utilization of available wound care dressings and products in the neonatal and pediatric populations should be established to address specific concerns regarding wound management in these populations.
Future Directions: The creation and implementation of evidence-based guidelines for the treatment of common wounds in the neonatal and pediatric populations is essential. In addition to an evaluation of currently marketed wound care dressings and products used in the adult population, newer wound care technologies should also be evaluated for use in neonates and children. In addition, further investigation of the specific pathophysiology of wound healing in neonates and children is indicated to promote the development of wound care dressings and products with specific applications in these populations.
figure fig-4
Kara Noelle Shah, MD, PhD
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Scope and Significance
Given the lack of consensus on the optimal strategies for common wound care management issues in the neonatal and pediatric populations and the large number of wound care products on the market today, it can be challenging to make informed decisions regarding wound care in these populations. A comprehensive review of the literature on the following specific areas of focus: pressure ulcers, surgical wounds, epidermal stripping, intravenous extravasation injuries, moisture-associated skin damage (MASD), and use of negative-pressure wound therapy (NPWT) is presented, along with management recommendations based on the clinical experience of the authors.
Go to:
Translational Relevance
Application of continuing advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of wound healing, in particular in neonates and children, will hopefully result in the development of advanced wound care products and technologies that address the specific needs of these populations.
Go to:
Clinical Relevance
Despite the lack of evidence-based clinical guidelines for wound management in the neonatal and pediatric populations, clinical practice decisions can be aided by a thoughtful consideration of the published literature and of expert opinion. Such information can also guide future clinical investigations into the safety and efficacy of the use of these products in children as part of a comprehensive initiative to develop evidence-based clinical guidelines for the treatment of acute and chronic wounds in the neonatal and pediatric populations.
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Discussion of Findings and Relevant Literature
Prevalence of wounds in pediatrics
Despite rapid advances in medical and nursing care for pediatric and neonatal patients and the increasingly complex level of care provided to these patients, there has been limited formal assessment of the prevalence, type, and management of wounds in this population. The hospitalized neonatal and pediatric population is at significant risk for the development of acute and/or chronic wounds and other skin-related injuries.1 A series of three hospital-acquired skin injury (HASI) prevalence surveys performed over 2010–2011 at a university-affiliated tertiary-care children's hospital revealed that pressure ulcers, both medical device-related and immobility-related, was the most common type of HASI, with point prevalence rates of 1.7–3.5%; diaper dermatitis/irritant-associated dermatitis was the next most common cause of HASI.2 In 2005, a one-day skin integrity audit performed on all inpatients hospitalized at another university-affiliated tertiary-care children's hospital revealed that 43% of patients had a wound and/or surgical incision, 16% of patients with urine and/or stool incontinence developed diaper dermatitis, and 6% of patients were felt to be at risk for the development of pressure ulcers as based on Braden Q score assessment.3 A 2003 multisite study examining the prevalence of pressure ulcers and skin breakdown in the pediatric inpatient population revealed a pressure ulcer prevalence of 4.0% and the prevalence of other forms of skin breakdown of 14.8%; 66% of pressure ulcers were facility associated.4 A 1998 survey of 215 neonatal intensive care units reported that an average of 21% of extremely low birth weight neonates developed skin breakdown in the first week of life.5
A significant number of children will be discharged from the hospital with a chronic wound, a stoma, or a predisposition to impaired skin integrity that will, by necessity, require some form of home management. Among children receiving home care, a study of 13 home care agencies indicated that 17% of children had a wound; most were treated with hydrogen peroxide, household soap, or povidone-iodine and either left uncovered or covered with dry or saline-soaked gauze.6 These studies further highlight the lack of clinical knowledge and consensus on the most appropriate standards for wound management in children.
Overview of wound care in pediatrics
Fundamentals of wound care in the neonatal and pediatric population are similar to those applicable to adults and include eliminating any identifiable contributing factors when possible, cleansing of the wound, debridement of devitalized tissue where appropriate, providing a moist wound environment to promote wound healing, identifying and treating associated infection, and protecting the intact skin surrounding the wound from maceration and skin breakdown.7,8 Optimizing patient nutritional status is also a very important factor.9 As compared to adults, however, there are important age-related and neurodevelopmental considerations that impact wound care in the neonatal and pediatric populations (Table 1).10
Table 1.
Table 1.
Wound care considerations in neonates, infants, and children
Specific concerns in the neonatal population, in particular in premature neonates, include an impaired epidermal barrier, immaturity of the developing immune system with increased risk for infection and impaired thermoregulation.8 By 34 weeks of gestation or usually within 2–3 weeks of life in preterm infants, the epidermal barrier is usually functionally mature, although skin fragility and susceptibility to irritants and increased risk for percutaneous absorption of topical agents persists. Prior studies have documented disparities in clinical practice with regards to basic skin care and wound management in neonatal intensive care units.11,12 In 2001, the Association of Women's Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses and the National Association of Neonatal Nurses published evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for general neonatal skin care.13 In infants and children, wound care recommendations must also include neurodevelopmental and behavioral considerations.
Fortunately, in the majority of otherwise healthy children, wound healing is brisk, uncomplicated, and requires minimal specialized attention. Chronically ill children, however, in particular those with limited mobility, poor nutritional status, immune compromise, neurodevelopmental delays, and/or frequent hospitalization are predisposed to poor wound healing and iatrogenic skin injury.
Wound healing is a complex, dynamic process that involves four basic phases: coagulation and hemostasis; inflammation; proliferation and repair; and wound maturation and remodeling.14 As such, the use of specific wound care products by necessity may need to be adjusted during the wound healing process (Fig. 1). Optimal product choice is dependent on several factors: the type of wound present; the overall condition of the patient, including any relevant comorbidities; and the condition of the wound bed, including the presence of infection, excessive granulation tissue, or the presence of devitalized tissue (slough or eschar) that may interfere with wound healing. Management of the wound is a dynamic process, and the astute clinician should frequently reassess the wound with regard to wound bed factors, including the depth of injury and amount of exudate, and with regard to the overall patient condition and modify the use of wound care dressings and other products as needed (Fig. 2).
Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Optimal product choice for local wound care based on depth of injury and amount of exudate.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Considerations in dressing and product choice based on the different phases of wound healing.
Wound care products and dressings have evolved dramatically from the use of simple wet or dry gauze to highly specialized skin care products (Table 2). Al
Dressings and Products in Pediatric Wound CareAlice King,1,,2 Judith J. Stellar,3 Anne Blevins,1 and Kara Noelle Shah1,,4,,5,*Author information ► Article notes ► Copyright and License information ►Go to:AbstractSignificance: The increasing complexity of medical and surgical care provided to pediatric patients has resulted in a population at significant risk for complications such as pressure ulcers, nonhealing surgical wounds, and moisture-associated skin damage. Wound care practices for neonatal and pediatric patients, including the choice of specific dressings or other wound care products, are currently based on a combination of provider experience and preference and a small number of published clinical guidelines based on expert opinion; rigorous evidence-based clinical guidelines for wound management in these populations is lacking.Recent Advances: Advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of wound healing have contributed to an ever-increasing number of specialized wound care products, most of which are predominantly marketed to adult patients and that have not been evaluated for safety and efficacy in the neonatal and pediatric populations. This review aims to discuss the available data on the use of both more traditional wound care products and newer wound care technologies in these populations, including medical-grade honey, nanocrystalline silver, and soft silicone-based adhesive technology.Critical Issues: Evidence-based wound care practices and demonstration of the safety, efficacy, and appropriate utilization of available wound care dressings and products in the neonatal and pediatric populations should be established to address specific concerns regarding wound management in these populations.Future Directions: The creation and implementation of evidence-based guidelines for the treatment of common wounds in the neonatal and pediatric populations is essential. In addition to an evaluation of currently marketed wound care dressings and products used in the adult population, newer wound care technologies should also be evaluated for use in neonates and children. In addition, further investigation of the specific pathophysiology of wound healing in neonates and children is indicated to promote the development of wound care dressings and products with specific applications in these populations.figure fig-4Kara Noelle Shah, MD, PhDGo to:Scope and SignificanceGiven the lack of consensus on the optimal strategies for common wound care management issues in the neonatal and pediatric populations and the large number of wound care products on the market today, it can be challenging to make informed decisions regarding wound care in these populations. A comprehensive review of the literature on the following specific areas of focus: pressure ulcers, surgical wounds, epidermal stripping, intravenous extravasation injuries, moisture-associated skin damage (MASD), and use of negative-pressure wound therapy (NPWT) is presented, along with management recommendations based on the clinical experience of the authors.Go to:Translational RelevanceApplication of continuing advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of wound healing, in particular in neonates and children, will hopefully result in the development of advanced wound care products and technologies that address the specific needs of these populations.Go to:Clinical RelevanceDespite the lack of evidence-based clinical guidelines for wound management in the neonatal and pediatric populations, clinical practice decisions can be aided by a thoughtful consideration of the published literature and of expert opinion. Such information can also guide future clinical investigations into the safety and efficacy of the use of these products in children as part of a comprehensive initiative to develop evidence-based clinical guidelines for the treatment of acute and chronic wounds in the neonatal and pediatric populations.Go to:Discussion of Findings and Relevant LiteraturePrevalence of wounds in pediatricsDespite rapid advances in medical and nursing care for pediatric and neonatal patients and the increasingly complex level of care provided to these patients, there has been limited formal assessment of the prevalence, type, and management of wounds in this population. The hospitalized neonatal and pediatric population is at significant risk for the development of acute and/or chronic wounds and other skin-related injuries.1 A series of three hospital-acquired skin injury (HASI) prevalence surveys performed over 2010–2011 at a university-affiliated tertiary-care children's hospital revealed that pressure ulcers, both medical device-related and immobility-related, was the most common type of HASI, with point prevalence rates of 1.7–3.5%; diaper dermatitis/irritant-associated dermatitis was the next most common cause of HASI.2 In 2005, a one-day skin integrity audit performed on all inpatients hospitalized at another university-affiliated tertiary-care children's hospital revealed that 43% of patients had a wound and/or surgical incision, 16% of patients with urine and/or stool incontinence developed diaper dermatitis, and 6% of patients were felt to be at risk for the development of pressure ulcers as based on Braden Q score assessment.3 A 2003 multisite study examining the prevalence of pressure ulcers and skin breakdown in the pediatric inpatient population revealed a pressure ulcer prevalence of 4.0% and the prevalence of other forms of skin breakdown of 14.8%; 66% of pressure ulcers were facility associated.4 A 1998 survey of 215 neonatal intensive care units reported that an average of 21% of extremely low birth weight neonates developed skin breakdown in the first week of life.5
A significant number of children will be discharged from the hospital with a chronic wound, a stoma, or a predisposition to impaired skin integrity that will, by necessity, require some form of home management. Among children receiving home care, a study of 13 home care agencies indicated that 17% of children had a wound; most were treated with hydrogen peroxide, household soap, or povidone-iodine and either left uncovered or covered with dry or saline-soaked gauze.6 These studies further highlight the lack of clinical knowledge and consensus on the most appropriate standards for wound management in children.
Overview of wound care in pediatrics
Fundamentals of wound care in the neonatal and pediatric population are similar to those applicable to adults and include eliminating any identifiable contributing factors when possible, cleansing of the wound, debridement of devitalized tissue where appropriate, providing a moist wound environment to promote wound healing, identifying and treating associated infection, and protecting the intact skin surrounding the wound from maceration and skin breakdown.7,8 Optimizing patient nutritional status is also a very important factor.9 As compared to adults, however, there are important age-related and neurodevelopmental considerations that impact wound care in the neonatal and pediatric populations (Table 1).10
Table 1.
Table 1.
Wound care considerations in neonates, infants, and children
Specific concerns in the neonatal population, in particular in premature neonates, include an impaired epidermal barrier, immaturity of the developing immune system with increased risk for infection and impaired thermoregulation.8 By 34 weeks of gestation or usually within 2–3 weeks of life in preterm infants, the epidermal barrier is usually functionally mature, although skin fragility and susceptibility to irritants and increased risk for percutaneous absorption of topical agents persists. Prior studies have documented disparities in clinical practice with regards to basic skin care and wound management in neonatal intensive care units.11,12 In 2001, the Association of Women's Health, Obstetric, and Neonatal Nurses and the National Association of Neonatal Nurses published evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for general neonatal skin care.13 In infants and children, wound care recommendations must also include neurodevelopmental and behavioral considerations.
Fortunately, in the majority of otherwise healthy children, wound healing is brisk, uncomplicated, and requires minimal specialized attention. Chronically ill children, however, in particular those with limited mobility, poor nutritional status, immune compromise, neurodevelopmental delays, and/or frequent hospitalization are predisposed to poor wound healing and iatrogenic skin injury.
Wound healing is a complex, dynamic process that involves four basic phases: coagulation and hemostasis; inflammation; proliferation and repair; and wound maturation and remodeling.14 As such, the use of specific wound care products by necessity may need to be adjusted during the wound healing process (Fig. 1). Optimal product choice is dependent on several factors: the type of wound present; the overall condition of the patient, including any relevant comorbidities; and the condition of the wound bed, including the presence of infection, excessive granulation tissue, or the presence of devitalized tissue (slough or eschar) that may interfere with wound healing. Management of the wound is a dynamic process, and the astute clinician should frequently reassess the wound with regard to wound bed factors, including the depth of injury and amount of exudate, and with regard to the overall patient condition and modify the use of wound care dressings and other products as needed (Fig. 2).
Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Optimal product choice for local wound care based on depth of injury and amount of exudate.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Considerations in dressing and product choice based on the different phases of wound healing.
Wound care products and dressings have evolved dramatically from the use of simple wet or dry gauze to highly specialized skin care products (Table 2). Al
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