We previously proposed a more complete proof of the pertinence
of this physical explanation and presented many experimental results
for comparison of basic creep in compression and in tension for old
concrete [1].
5. Other recent approaches to explain the origin of creep
Over the last decade, authors have proposed various explanations
for the physical origin of concrete creep [17–19]. In all these studies,
microcracking evolution during concrete creep was not considered
as the principal force driving creep evolution. Different hypotheses
were proposed based on:
• Microprestress-solidification theory [17];
• Viscoplastic behavior of cement hydrates (principally C-S-H) [18];
and
• Rearrangement of nanoscale particles (C-S-H level) around limit
packing densities following the free-volume dynamics theory of
granular physics [19].
In relation to these proposals, the following remarks can be made.
First, all the above physical hypotheses are related to the scale of the
hydrates in concrete. If cracks are not involved at this scale, how can
the fact that the scale effect exists in tension and not in compression
and that creep in compression is much more important than in
tension be explained [1]? Second, the fact that microcrack initiation
(as proved by acoustic emission testing [1]) as a function of creep
strain depends on the initial microcrack state (cracks created before
the creep step [1]) cannot be explained by the intrinsic viscoplastic
behavior of CSH or by rearrangement of nanoscale particles or by
microprestress-solidification theory.
For these reasons, we believe that even though other physical
mechanisms can exist, microcracking evolution is the main physical
origin of creep evolution.
6. Analysis of the experimental results
6.1. Basic tensile creep versus basic compressive creep for old concrete
Considering Section 4, the difference between basic creep in compression
and that in tension can be explained by the density of
microcracks before localization, which is more important in compression
than in tension for the same applied stress/strength ratio. In fact,
it is well known that cracking evolution is much more stable and
diffuse in compression than in tension.
6.2. Basic tensile creep versus basic compressive creep for young concrete
The negatively increasing part of the specific creep curve for
young concrete (step 1; Fig. 11) can be attributed to self-healing of
microcracks. When the concrete is young, it can be considered as
more heterogeneous than when it is older (the difference between
the mechanical characteristics of the aggregates and of the matrix is
more important). The mechanical characteristics of the matrix (Young's
modulus, tensile strength, etc.) are low, so the elastic energy released on
microcrack initiation and the kinetic energy due to microcrack propagation
are also low. This explains why themicrocracks created in a young
concrete are numerous and short (with very small opening) and why
self-healing of these microcracks is very easy and important.
As a consequence, there is competition between two mechanisms:
self-healing of microcracks (mechanism 1) and self-drying shrinkage
(mechanism2). During step 1, at the beginning of creep loading when
the microcracks are very short with very small openings, mechanism
1 predominates, so self-healing of microcracks induces a supplementary
shrinkage strain (negative compared with tensile loading) which
is more important than the strain induced by crack opening (positive
due to tensile loading). This explains the negatively increasing part of
the specific creep curve during this first step.
During step 2, after a longer loading duration, themicrocracks become
larger. In this case, three situations can exist (Fig. 11):
– Mechanism 2 becomes predominant. In this case, the specific
creep curve changes from negatively increasing during step 1 to
negatively decreasing at the start of step 2 and to positively
increasing at the end of step 2.
– Mechanism 1 continues to predominate but its influence decreases.
In this case, compliance as a function of time continues
to have a negative evolution but with a decrease of its derivative.
– Mechanisms 1 and 2 have the same influence. In this case, compliance
as a function of time remains nearly constant during step 2
(the derivative of the curve is around zero).
We previously proposed a more complete proof of the pertinence
of this physical explanation and presented many experimental results
for comparison of basic creep in compression and in tension for old
concrete [1].
5. Other recent approaches to explain the origin of creep
Over the last decade, authors have proposed various explanations
for the physical origin of concrete creep [17–19]. In all these studies,
microcracking evolution during concrete creep was not considered
as the principal force driving creep evolution. Different hypotheses
were proposed based on:
• Microprestress-solidification theory [17];
• Viscoplastic behavior of cement hydrates (principally C-S-H) [18];
and
• Rearrangement of nanoscale particles (C-S-H level) around limit
packing densities following the free-volume dynamics theory of
granular physics [19].
In relation to these proposals, the following remarks can be made.
First, all the above physical hypotheses are related to the scale of the
hydrates in concrete. If cracks are not involved at this scale, how can
the fact that the scale effect exists in tension and not in compression
and that creep in compression is much more important than in
tension be explained [1]? Second, the fact that microcrack initiation
(as proved by acoustic emission testing [1]) as a function of creep
strain depends on the initial microcrack state (cracks created before
the creep step [1]) cannot be explained by the intrinsic viscoplastic
behavior of CSH or by rearrangement of nanoscale particles or by
microprestress-solidification theory.
For these reasons, we believe that even though other physical
mechanisms can exist, microcracking evolution is the main physical
origin of creep evolution.
6. Analysis of the experimental results
6.1. Basic tensile creep versus basic compressive creep for old concrete
Considering Section 4, the difference between basic creep in compression
and that in tension can be explained by the density of
microcracks before localization, which is more important in compression
than in tension for the same applied stress/strength ratio. In fact,
it is well known that cracking evolution is much more stable and
diffuse in compression than in tension.
6.2. Basic tensile creep versus basic compressive creep for young concrete
The negatively increasing part of the specific creep curve for
young concrete (step 1; Fig. 11) can be attributed to self-healing of
microcracks. When the concrete is young, it can be considered as
more heterogeneous than when it is older (the difference between
the mechanical characteristics of the aggregates and of the matrix is
more important). The mechanical characteristics of the matrix (Young's
modulus, tensile strength, etc.) are low, so the elastic energy released on
microcrack initiation and the kinetic energy due to microcrack propagation
are also low. This explains why themicrocracks created in a young
concrete are numerous and short (with very small opening) and why
self-healing of these microcracks is very easy and important.
As a consequence, there is competition between two mechanisms:
self-healing of microcracks (mechanism 1) and self-drying shrinkage
(mechanism2). During step 1, at the beginning of creep loading when
the microcracks are very short with very small openings, mechanism
1 predominates, so self-healing of microcracks induces a supplementary
shrinkage strain (negative compared with tensile loading) which
is more important than the strain induced by crack opening (positive
due to tensile loading). This explains the negatively increasing part of
the specific creep curve during this first step.
During step 2, after a longer loading duration, themicrocracks become
larger. In this case, three situations can exist (Fig. 11):
– Mechanism 2 becomes predominant. In this case, the specific
creep curve changes from negatively increasing during step 1 to
negatively decreasing at the start of step 2 and to positively
increasing at the end of step 2.
– Mechanism 1 continues to predominate but its influence decreases.
In this case, compliance as a function of time continues
to have a negative evolution but with a decrease of its derivative.
– Mechanisms 1 and 2 have the same influence. In this case, compliance
as a function of time remains nearly constant during step 2
(the derivative of the curve is around zero).
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