If institutions or individuals taking the risk are assured of not
being held liable for losses, then it creates excessive risk taking. So if
banks believe that the government will cover any significant losses
from loans to political cronies that are not repaid, they will be more
likely to extend such loans.
Considerable resources have been devoted to understanding the nature
and causes of financial crises in hopes of avoiding future crises and
forecasting those crises that do occur. Forecasting is always difficult in
economics, and it is safe to say that there will always be surprises that no
economic forecaster foresees. Yet there are certain variables that are
so obviously related to past crises that they may serve as warning indicators
of potential future crises. The list includes the following:
1. Fixed exchange rates. Countries involved in recent crises, including
Mexico in 1993 to 1994, the Southeast Asian countries in 1997, and
Argentina in 2002, all utilized fixed exchange rates prior to the onset
of the crisis. Generally, macroeconomic policies were inconsistent
with the maintenance of the fixed exchange rate. When large devaluations
ultimately occurred, domestic residents holding unhedged loans
denominated in foreign currency suffered huge losses.
2. Falling international reserves. The maintenance of fixed exchange rates
may be no problem. One way to detect whether the exchange rate is
no longer an equilibrium rate is to monitor the international reserve
holdings of the country (largely the foreign currency held by the central
bank and treasury). If the stock of international reserves is falling
208 International Money and Finance
steadily over time, that is a good indicator that the fixed exchange rate
regime is under pressure and there is likely to be a devaluation.
3. Lack of transparency. Many crisis countries suffer from a lack of transparency
in governmental activities and in public disclosures of business
conditions. Investors need to know the financial situation of firms in
order to make informed investment decisions. If accounting rules
allow firms to hide the financial impact of actions that would harm
investors, then investors may not be able to adequately judge when
the risk of investing in a firm rises. In such cases, a financial crisis may
appear as a surprise to all but the “insiders” in a troubled firm.
Similarly, if the government does not disclose its international reserve
position in a timely and informative manner, investors may be caught
by surprise when a devaluation occurs. The lack of good information
on government and business activities serves as a warning sign of
potential future problems.
This short list of warning signs provides an indication of the sorts of
variables an international investor must consider when evaluating the risks
of investing in a foreign country. Once a country finds itself with severe
international debt repayment problems, it has to seek additional financing.
Because international banks are not willing to commit new money where
prospects for repayment are slim, the IMF becomes an important source
of funding.
If institutions or individuals taking the risk are assured of notbeing held liable for losses, then it creates excessive risk taking. So ifbanks believe that the government will cover any significant lossesfrom loans to political cronies that are not repaid, they will be morelikely to extend such loans.Considerable resources have been devoted to understanding the natureand causes of financial crises in hopes of avoiding future crises andforecasting those crises that do occur. Forecasting is always difficult ineconomics, and it is safe to say that there will always be surprises that noeconomic forecaster foresees. Yet there are certain variables that areso obviously related to past crises that they may serve as warning indicatorsof potential future crises. The list includes the following:1. Fixed exchange rates. Countries involved in recent crises, includingMexico in 1993 to 1994, the Southeast Asian countries in 1997, andArgentina in 2002, all utilized fixed exchange rates prior to the onsetof the crisis. Generally, macroeconomic policies were inconsistentwith the maintenance of the fixed exchange rate. When large devaluationsultimately occurred, domestic residents holding unhedged loansdenominated in foreign currency suffered huge losses.2. Falling international reserves. The maintenance of fixed exchange ratesmay be no problem. One way to detect whether the exchange rate isno longer an equilibrium rate is to monitor the international reserveholdings of the country (largely the foreign currency held by the centralbank and treasury). If the stock of international reserves is falling208 International Money and Financesteadily over time, that is a good indicator that the fixed exchange rateregime is under pressure and there is likely to be a devaluation.3. Lack of transparency. Many crisis countries suffer from a lack of transparencyin governmental activities and in public disclosures of businessconditions. Investors need to know the financial situation of firms inorder to make informed investment decisions. If accounting rulesallow firms to hide the financial impact of actions that would harminvestors, then investors may not be able to adequately judge whenthe risk of investing in a firm rises. In such cases, a financial crisis mayappear as a surprise to all but the “insiders” in a troubled firm.Similarly, if the government does not disclose its international reserveposition in a timely and informative manner, investors may be caughtby surprise when a devaluation occurs. The lack of good informationon government and business activities serves as a warning sign ofpotential future problems.This short list of warning signs provides an indication of the sorts ofvariables an international investor must consider when evaluating the risksof investing in a foreign country. Once a country finds itself with severeinternational debt repayment problems, it has to seek additional financing.Because international banks are not willing to commit new money whereprospects for repayment are slim, the IMF becomes an important sourceof funding.
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