2.2.3 Equity Offerings
Listed companies engage in earnings management to secure financial resources,
mainly through stable company performance. In this context, managers are more likely to
manage earnings in order to attract more investors. Teoh et al. (1998) provide evidence
that companies who engage in earnings management prior to their initial public offerings
have lower performance in the long run. Rangan (1998) indicates that the stock market
overstates issuing companies and is subsequently depressed by predictable decreases in
earnings generated by earnings management. Ronen and Sadan (1981) also suggest that
managers of listed companies frequently manage earning to meet earning expectations.
2.2.4 Insider Trading
Insider trading can be defined as the buying or selling of a security by an individual
who has access to material, non-public information. Both Sawicko and Shrestha (2008)
and Leuz et al. (2003) examine links between insider trading and earnings management,
and find that inside traders tend to lower earnings when looking to buy securities and raise
earnings when looking to sell.