Perhaps the principal theoretical perspective on technology acceptance is innovation diffusion theory, which has been applied at both individual (e.g., ROGERS) and organizational (e.g., ZALTMAN ET AL.,) levels of analysis. Its primary intention is to provide an account of the manner in which any technological innovation moves from the stage of invention to widespread use (or not). Though not concerned with information technology exclusively, diffusion theory offers a conceptual framework for discussing acceptance at a global level.
Diffusion theory posits five characteristics of innovations that affect their diffusion: relative advantage (the extent to which a technology offers improvements over currently available tools), compatibility (its consistency with social practices and norms among its users), complexity (its ease of use or learning), trialability (the opportunity to try an innovation before committing to use it), and observability (the extent to which the technology's outputs and its gains are clear to see). Each of these characteristics on its own is insufficient to predict either the extent or the rate of diffusion, but diffusion studies have demonstrated that innovations affording advantages, compatibility with existing practices and beliefs, low complexity, potential trialability, and observability, will be more extensively and rapidly diffused than an innovation with the cluster of opposite characteristics (ROGERS). An early meta-analysis of the innovation diffusion literature found that three of these characteristics had the greatest influence on adoption: compatibility and relative advantage were positively related to innovation adoption (p < .05), while complexity was negatively related to adoption at marginally significant (p < .062) levels (TORNATZKY KLEIN). However, the authors criticized the then current conceptualizations of these constructs. Relative advantage, in particular, was cited as especially ambiguous because the criteria used to judge what is "advantageous" is often not defined (e.g., an innovation could be advantageous because it costs less or is less complex).
In examining and extending these characteristics in a context specific to information technology (IT), MOORE BENBASAT report an extensive effort to develop an instrument which can be used to evaluate user perceptions of IT innovations. Their results suggest that the most important perceived characteristics of an IT innovation which affect decisions regarding use are: voluntariness of use, image ("the degree to which use of an innovation is perceived to enhance one's image or status in one's social system," p. 195), relative advantage, compatibility, ease of use, trialability, result demonstrability, and visibility. These results lend at least partial support to ROGERS' factors, but add an important emphasis on variables related to discretion and ease of use.
Innovation diffusion theory suggests that factors at the level of the individual user are also important. ROGERS divides technology or innovation adopters into five categories depending on their speed of uptake: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Such distinctions could be seen as somewhat fuzzy, not least because any distribution over time could be so divided. However, Rogers plots these categories over a normal distribution where each major category (innovators and early adopters are combined into one for this purpose) represents a standard deviation of dispersion. Accordingly, the division between early and late majority is the mean, with laggards and late adopters constituting 50% of the population. On this basis, Rogers estimates that early adopters and innovators jointly make up only 16% of the total population. Early adopters have disproportionate influence over the adoption of any technology, and profiling studies of these categories have revealed a number of personality (e.g., risk-taking, adventure seeking) and socioeconomic (e.g., wealth, education) variables that supposedly distinguish their members.
This approach seems to have direct relevance to studies of IT acceptance in organizations. BRANCHEAU WETHERBE showed that the cumulative adoption distribution of spreadsheet use closely follows a sigmoidal, S-shaped curve, as predicted by innovation diffusion theory. Thus, organizations evaluating technology for use in the organization must be cognizant of the user base for which the tool is both designed and purchased. For a tool that will be used throughout the organization, it is reasonable to expect that a protracted period of time may be required before all users are "up to speed" on how to use the tool effectively. Understanding users who are likely to be "laggards" is important; intervention strategies (i.e., extended training) can be designed with those users in mind.
Recent research has attempted to extend diffusion theory to more complex adoption scenarios. For example, managerial influence in the organization can encourage (or discourage) acceptance explicitly through expressed preferences and/or mandates (LEONARD-BARTON DESCHAMPS; MOORE BENBASAT) and through reward systems and incentives (LEONARD-BARTON ). Thus, studies that examine acceptance at the level of the organization need to account for the potential importance of managerial influence.
The innovation diffusion approach seems to have been useful in the area of end-user computing (EUC) within the IS literature, as many of the theoretically strong EUC studies (e.g., BRANCHEAU WETHERBE; MOORE BENBASAT at the individual level; BROWN BOSTROM at the organizational level) are based on theories of innovation diffusion. In fact, in their review and analysis of the EUC literature, BRANCHEAU BROWN suggest innovation diffusion as a promising basis for future EUC research.
While diffusion theory provides a context in which one may examine the uptake and impact of information technology over time, it provides little explicit treatment of user acceptance. Its most direct link would appear to be in the area of innovation characteristics that may drive individual adoption decisions (i.e., the perceived complexity, compatibility, etc. of a particular IT) and innovation positioning (the planned marketing of a technology to a specific group or organization)(ROGERS).
As researchers seek to identify the factors that determine user acceptance of any information technology and, in particular, factors that can be influenced by design, the question of acceptance has come to be tackled more directly by researchers working outside (or at least on the outskirts of) the classical innovation diffusion tradition. Most noticeably, researchers in the fields of human-computer interaction and management information systems (MIS) have drawn heavily on theoretical work in social and cognitive psychology, as well as sociology, in studying user acceptance. For purposes of clarity, a distinction is drawn here between those theoretical approaches seeking to understand the social and psychological determinants of user acceptance at an individual level and those seeking to understand user acceptance in terms of the design and implementation process of new technology.
(https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~adillon/BookChapters/User%20acceptance.htm)
Emerging Theories of Learning and the Role of Technology
Theories of Educational Technology
Introduction
The world is changing and the requirements for people entering into this world are different than they have been in the past. This paper will look at what this major change is, what these new requirements are and the impact they have had on the theories about learning.
Why new theories are emerging and what technology can do to help
Many reasons could exist for a new theory to be developed. Perhaps an older theory doesn’t quite answer questions about learners or maybe the old theory leaves out an explanation for cognition within the brain. For the purpose of this paper though, the author has chosen to discuss reasons connected to a change in the world that is having an effect on nearly every aspect of society. This aspect is technology (Fouts, 2000).
What is happening to make educators think that a change is needed?
The main reasons educators would believe that change is needed are that they can see a change in the current student population, and they can also see a change in the requirements of our new world. Students are facing an entirely different world than the generations before (Fouts, 2000). This generation of students differs in many ways, but one thing which stands out is that they have more access to technology than previous generations (Eugene, et al, 2004). For example research has found that quite a few first grade aged students use a computer on a weekly basis during the summer holidays. Researchers have also found that by the year 1999, a surprisingly large percentage (97%) of kindergarteners had access to computers at home or school. Statistically, even lower income students that might not have access to technology at home find a way to make use of it, by either going to a library, their school, or to a friend’s house (Eugene, et al, 2004). These statistics clearly show that technology plays a very important role in students’ lives. It also helps to clarify why educators believe a change is needed in the way teaching and learning occurs. If students are so engrossed in the use of technology outside of the classroom, they obviously value it. It would then be logical to say that if technology were integrated into the classroom the learning environment would be more relevant to the current student population. Why are children of today becoming so engrossed in the use of technology at such an early age?
The world we live in has become a technical world. Nearly all aspects of society have been influenced by technology (Fouts, 2000). According to Research on computers and education: Past
Perhaps the principal theoretical perspective on technology acceptance is innovation diffusion theory, which has been applied at both individual (e.g., ROGERS) and organizational (e.g., ZALTMAN ET AL.,) levels of analysis. Its primary intention is to provide an account of the manner in which any technological innovation moves from the stage of invention to widespread use (or not). Though not concerned with information technology exclusively, diffusion theory offers a conceptual framework for discussing acceptance at a global level.
Diffusion theory posits five characteristics of innovations that affect their diffusion: relative advantage (the extent to which a technology offers improvements over currently available tools), compatibility (its consistency with social practices and norms among its users), complexity (its ease of use or learning), trialability (the opportunity to try an innovation before committing to use it), and observability (the extent to which the technology's outputs and its gains are clear to see). Each of these characteristics on its own is insufficient to predict either the extent or the rate of diffusion, but diffusion studies have demonstrated that innovations affording advantages, compatibility with existing practices and beliefs, low complexity, potential trialability, and observability, will be more extensively and rapidly diffused than an innovation with the cluster of opposite characteristics (ROGERS). An early meta-analysis of the innovation diffusion literature found that three of these characteristics had the greatest influence on adoption: compatibility and relative advantage were positively related to innovation adoption (p < .05), while complexity was negatively related to adoption at marginally significant (p < .062) levels (TORNATZKY KLEIN). However, the authors criticized the then current conceptualizations of these constructs. Relative advantage, in particular, was cited as especially ambiguous because the criteria used to judge what is "advantageous" is often not defined (e.g., an innovation could be advantageous because it costs less or is less complex).
In examining and extending these characteristics in a context specific to information technology (IT), MOORE BENBASAT report an extensive effort to develop an instrument which can be used to evaluate user perceptions of IT innovations. Their results suggest that the most important perceived characteristics of an IT innovation which affect decisions regarding use are: voluntariness of use, image ("the degree to which use of an innovation is perceived to enhance one's image or status in one's social system," p. 195), relative advantage, compatibility, ease of use, trialability, result demonstrability, and visibility. These results lend at least partial support to ROGERS' factors, but add an important emphasis on variables related to discretion and ease of use.
Innovation diffusion theory suggests that factors at the level of the individual user are also important. ROGERS divides technology or innovation adopters into five categories depending on their speed of uptake: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Such distinctions could be seen as somewhat fuzzy, not least because any distribution over time could be so divided. However, Rogers plots these categories over a normal distribution where each major category (innovators and early adopters are combined into one for this purpose) represents a standard deviation of dispersion. Accordingly, the division between early and late majority is the mean, with laggards and late adopters constituting 50% of the population. On this basis, Rogers estimates that early adopters and innovators jointly make up only 16% of the total population. Early adopters have disproportionate influence over the adoption of any technology, and profiling studies of these categories have revealed a number of personality (e.g., risk-taking, adventure seeking) and socioeconomic (e.g., wealth, education) variables that supposedly distinguish their members.
This approach seems to have direct relevance to studies of IT acceptance in organizations. BRANCHEAU WETHERBE showed that the cumulative adoption distribution of spreadsheet use closely follows a sigmoidal, S-shaped curve, as predicted by innovation diffusion theory. Thus, organizations evaluating technology for use in the organization must be cognizant of the user base for which the tool is both designed and purchased. For a tool that will be used throughout the organization, it is reasonable to expect that a protracted period of time may be required before all users are "up to speed" on how to use the tool effectively. Understanding users who are likely to be "laggards" is important; intervention strategies (i.e., extended training) can be designed with those users in mind.
Recent research has attempted to extend diffusion theory to more complex adoption scenarios. For example, managerial influence in the organization can encourage (or discourage) acceptance explicitly through expressed preferences and/or mandates (LEONARD-BARTON DESCHAMPS; MOORE BENBASAT) and through reward systems and incentives (LEONARD-BARTON ). Thus, studies that examine acceptance at the level of the organization need to account for the potential importance of managerial influence.
The innovation diffusion approach seems to have been useful in the area of end-user computing (EUC) within the IS literature, as many of the theoretically strong EUC studies (e.g., BRANCHEAU WETHERBE; MOORE BENBASAT at the individual level; BROWN BOSTROM at the organizational level) are based on theories of innovation diffusion. In fact, in their review and analysis of the EUC literature, BRANCHEAU BROWN suggest innovation diffusion as a promising basis for future EUC research.
While diffusion theory provides a context in which one may examine the uptake and impact of information technology over time, it provides little explicit treatment of user acceptance. Its most direct link would appear to be in the area of innovation characteristics that may drive individual adoption decisions (i.e., the perceived complexity, compatibility, etc. of a particular IT) and innovation positioning (the planned marketing of a technology to a specific group or organization)(ROGERS).
As researchers seek to identify the factors that determine user acceptance of any information technology and, in particular, factors that can be influenced by design, the question of acceptance has come to be tackled more directly by researchers working outside (or at least on the outskirts of) the classical innovation diffusion tradition. Most noticeably, researchers in the fields of human-computer interaction and management information systems (MIS) have drawn heavily on theoretical work in social and cognitive psychology, as well as sociology, in studying user acceptance. For purposes of clarity, a distinction is drawn here between those theoretical approaches seeking to understand the social and psychological determinants of user acceptance at an individual level and those seeking to understand user acceptance in terms of the design and implementation process of new technology.
(https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~adillon/BookChapters/User%20acceptance.htm)
Emerging Theories of Learning and the Role of Technology
Theories of Educational Technology
Introduction
The world is changing and the requirements for people entering into this world are different than they have been in the past. This paper will look at what this major change is, what these new requirements are and the impact they have had on the theories about learning.
Why new theories are emerging and what technology can do to help
Many reasons could exist for a new theory to be developed. Perhaps an older theory doesn’t quite answer questions about learners or maybe the old theory leaves out an explanation for cognition within the brain. For the purpose of this paper though, the author has chosen to discuss reasons connected to a change in the world that is having an effect on nearly every aspect of society. This aspect is technology (Fouts, 2000).
What is happening to make educators think that a change is needed?
The main reasons educators would believe that change is needed are that they can see a change in the current student population, and they can also see a change in the requirements of our new world. Students are facing an entirely different world than the generations before (Fouts, 2000). This generation of students differs in many ways, but one thing which stands out is that they have more access to technology than previous generations (Eugene, et al, 2004). For example research has found that quite a few first grade aged students use a computer on a weekly basis during the summer holidays. Researchers have also found that by the year 1999, a surprisingly large percentage (97%) of kindergarteners had access to computers at home or school. Statistically, even lower income students that might not have access to technology at home find a way to make use of it, by either going to a library, their school, or to a friend’s house (Eugene, et al, 2004). These statistics clearly show that technology plays a very important role in students’ lives. It also helps to clarify why educators believe a change is needed in the way teaching and learning occurs. If students are so engrossed in the use of technology outside of the classroom, they obviously value it. It would then be logical to say that if technology were integrated into the classroom the learning environment would be more relevant to the current student population. Why are children of today becoming so engrossed in the use of technology at such an early age?
The world we live in has become a technical world. Nearly all aspects of society have been influenced by technology (Fouts, 2000). According to Research on computers and education: Past
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