THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE: IMMANUEL KANT
German philosopher Immanuel Kant took an entirely different approach to ethics than did Epicurus or Mill. They cared about consequences; he was concerned with the demands of reason and the moral law. They regarded an act as good or bad according to how things turned out. Kant heads the list of philosophers who define an act as right or wrong regardless of the outcome. Kant’s ethical stance is the model for Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development. His condemnation of any type of lie is total:
Truthfulness in statements which cannot be avoided is the formal duty of an individual to everyone, however great may be the disadvantage accruing to himself or another.6
Stacy may be able to dodge the truth by not turning in a class evaluation, refusing to answer the telephone, or telling her unattractive classmate only of her fear of getting mugged. However, confronted with Harold’s direct question and penetrating stare, Kant would say that she has a moral obligation to tell the truth ("Yes, I took your keys"). Some would suggest that Harold forfeits the right to a straight answer by his drunken condition; Kant would hear none of it. Harold doesn’t cease being human because his behavior is unpleasant. Stacy’s lying to Harold would violate human dignity, both his and hers.
If Stacy were an egoist, she would focus on her fear that an honest answer might result in Harold’s slapping her around. If she were a utilitarian, she would also worry that when Harold hears the truth, he will grab the keys and drive off into the night. Perhaps she should lie to keep someone from being killed. But Kant regarded violations of ethical duty as a fate worse than death, no matter whose life is at stake. In the words of a sports-minded colleague who teaches ethics, "Kant plays ethical hardball without a mitt." Kant came to this absolutist position through the logic of his categorical imperative, a term which means "duty without exception." He stated the categorical imperative as a universal law: "Act only on that maxim which you can will to become a universal law."7 In effect, he said we should ask the question, "What if everybody did that?" If we can’t live with the answer, we have a solemn duty not to do the deed.
Stacy needs to ask herself the question, "What if everybody lied?" The answer of course is that if some words are false, all words may be false. Language is stripped of any consistent meaning. Promises would not be kept, trust would disintegrate, anarchy would reign. Since no rational being can live in a state like that, Kant’s verdict is clear. Lying is always wrong! Case closed. Kant doesn’t waffle on moral issues.