Prior to independence, only the affluent were educated. At independence, most of Singapore’s two million people
were illiterate and unskilled. Therefore the focus of this “survival” period was on expanding basic education as
quickly as possible. Schools were built rapidly. Teachers were recruited on a large scale. The schools that had been
established by different ethnic groups were merged into a single Singaporean education system. A bilingual policy
was introduced so that all children would learn both their own language and English. A textbook agency was
created to provide textbooks. The expansion was so rapid that universal primary education was attained in 1965
and universal lower secondary by the early 1970s. By the end of the “survival-driven phase”, Singapore had created
a national system of public education.