Second, prior research evaluates the Benign tax savings ([A]) that result from a reduction in taxable income volatility and
finds only moderate effects. In particular, using a simulation and data from 1980–1994, Graham and Smith (1999) estimate
the firm-level tax savings from a 5 percent reduction in taxable income volatility, whether due to derivatives or other
factors, at $57,184. Graham and Rogers (2002) show that firms use derivatives in response to tax incentives and infer median
debt-related tax benefits (computed as tax rate debt) equal to 0.72 percent of firm value for 85 firms during 1994–1995.
Third, there are currently no empirical estimates of the tax savings from Transactional tax avoidance ([B]þ[C]). Rather, the
concerns of tax authorities and lawmakers about derivatives-based tax avoidance are largely based on anecdotal evidence
(Raskolnikov, 2011). Nevertheless, because derivatives facilitate lucrative tax planning strategies along the entire continuum,
I test the following hypothesis (in alternative form):