Our last set of panel data tests examines the effect of earnings opacity on the level of trading. The details of the data set used to measure trade are discussed in the next section. After controlling for other influences, we find that earnings aggressiveness, earnings smoothing, and overall earnings opacity have significant adverse effects on trade. An increase in our measure of overall earnings opacity from the 25th percentile rank to the 75th percentile rank is associated with and 8.8 percent decrease in annual trade.