Stress, immune system function, and PTSD
The effect of severe acute and ECRS on vitamin D metabolism, consumption and storage is not known. Severe acute stress and ECRS with increased glucocorticoid production, however, may impair vitamin D metabolism as has been demonstrated with the use of exogenous corticosteroids including prednisone [43]. ECRS may have particular relevance in the case of idiopathic CMI’s and other idiopathic multisystem illnesses due to its independent negative effects on immune system functioning and on the central nervous system [44] and [45].
Overtime, ECRS is known to cause hyperplasia of the adrenal gland, increased glucocorticoid secretion, and atrophy of the thymus gland, which is one source of T lymphocytes [44]. Fig. 2 demonstrates how ECRS may relate to immune system function. Sympathetic fibers of the autonomic nervous system innervate bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. All lymphocytes have adrenergic receptors. Stimulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis or of the sympathetic–adrenal–medullary axis by ECRS results in the secretion of adrenal hormones including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol [46] and [47]. Exposure to ECRS, in contrast to acute stress, has been shown to have negative effects on almost all functional measures of the innate and adaptive immune systems [46]. Impairment of the cellular immune response has been shown to often result in higher antibody levels against latent viruses [46], [47] and [48].
Stress, immune system function, and PTSD
The effect of severe acute and ECRS on vitamin D metabolism, consumption and storage is not known. Severe acute stress and ECRS with increased glucocorticoid production, however, may impair vitamin D metabolism as has been demonstrated with the use of exogenous corticosteroids including prednisone [43]. ECRS may have particular relevance in the case of idiopathic CMI’s and other idiopathic multisystem illnesses due to its independent negative effects on immune system functioning and on the central nervous system [44] and [45].
Overtime, ECRS is known to cause hyperplasia of the adrenal gland, increased glucocorticoid secretion, and atrophy of the thymus gland, which is one source of T lymphocytes [44]. Fig. 2 demonstrates how ECRS may relate to immune system function. Sympathetic fibers of the autonomic nervous system innervate bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. All lymphocytes have adrenergic receptors. Stimulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis or of the sympathetic–adrenal–medullary axis by ECRS results in the secretion of adrenal hormones including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol [46] and [47]. Exposure to ECRS, in contrast to acute stress, has been shown to have negative effects on almost all functional measures of the innate and adaptive immune systems [46]. Impairment of the cellular immune response has been shown to often result in higher antibody levels against latent viruses [46], [47] and [48].
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