2.1. What are the characteristics of learning-oriented problems? A philosophical approach based on Stephen
Toulmin
In the previous example, we observed that emphasising the essential “chemical idea” to which the formulation
refers and orienting the calculations towards it makes the problem much more interesting. By attempting to
generalise this idea, we realise that the important component of a problem is that it should bring the student to the
boundary between what he or she knows and what should be learned so that the effort made to solve the problem contributes to the emergence of the new type of knowledge that is being studied in class. Therefore, the students'
knowledge changes as a result of solving the problem in an identical manner as, according to Toulmin and other
scientific philosophers, disciplines change their inherent problems are solved. Toulmin (1972) considers that
scientific knowledge evolves from the resolution of problems. The moving force behind the evolution of science is
the identification of problems, and these problems are the result of the difference between the exposition of subject
ideals and what can actually be performed in a given moment (see Figure 1).