56 expected to worsen as teachers retire (Boyer & Gillespie, 2000). Thornton et al. posited that the shortage of qualified special education teachers is pervasive, regardless of the type of special education program (i.e., type of disability or type of service delivery model). Historically, researchers have documented the shortage of special education teachers in the field (Billingsley et al.. 1995; Boe, Bobbitt, & Cook, 1997; Boe, Bobbitt, et al., l996; Boe et al., 2006; Brownell et al., 1995). The shortage problem causes many students with disabilities to be taught by unqualified teachers. School administrators often have to recruit substitute teachers to fill the gap, or assign a teacher without the proper certification to fill vacant positions (Katsiyannis, Zhang, & Conroy, 2003). This is especially disheartening when considering the broad range of needs of students who require specialized instmction and services. Recent studies have affirmed the critical shortage of special education teachers. The Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. Department of Labor, 2008) reported that job availability for special education teachers is expected to rise. Job prospects should be vast as many districts are reporting problems with finding sufficient numbers of certified special education teachers. As a result of such deficiencies, school districts are often forced to make reductions in much-needed services, such as speech therapy, and increase special education class sizes (Cochran-Smith, Feiman-Nemser, Mclntyre, & Demers, 2008) Cochran-Smith et al. (2008) enumerated the societal ramifications resulting from the shortage of special education teachers. The deleterious effects to students include
57 compromised educational experiences while in school. When students with disabilities are not educated by highly qualified special education teachers, they do not receive the intensive, individualized instruction they need, Which may result in low achievement, and larger numbers of incompetent graduates who will not be able to compete for jobs. As policymakers continue to study the conundrum of special education teacher attrition and grapple with finding creative ways to prevent it, research indicates that recruitment strategies have proven insufficient. The special education shortage remains because such high numbers of newly hired teachers leave after only a few years in the profession (Ingersoll, 2001). Ingersoll reports that of the teaching areas with the highest numbers of teachers who leave (special education, math, and science, respectively), the area of special education is most severely impacted by teacher attrition. Fuithennore, special education teachers are likely to leave their special education assignments in favor of other teaching positions within the general education setting (Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe, Cook, Bobbitt, & Weber, 1996). Boe (2006) analyzed trends on the supply and demand of special education teachers over a period of 16 years (1987-2003), during which the shortage reached a level of nearly 54,000 nationwide, which was approximately ll% of the total teaching population. The shortage of qualified special education teachers has vast legal ramifications. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 and the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 require that highly qualified teachers serve for students in need of special education services (No Child Left Behind, n.d.). As a result of the shortage of highly qualified special education teachers, many
58 school districts are faced with increasing numbers of formal state complaints and litigious Clllfi PTOCCSS C3565. Thomton et al. (2007) outlined the primary issues contributing to special education teacher shortages. Those issues appear to be the following: l A lack of qualified applicants. High rates of attrition resulting from (a) employment issues (e. g., poor working conditions, salary-related issues, unmanageable caseloads, and poor school climate); (b) personal issues (e. g., lifestyle, family, and relocations); (c) support-related issues (e. g., lack of colleague and administrative support); (d) student-related issues (e. g., discipline problems, low levels of motivation, and insufficient student progress); and (e) other issues (e.g., retirement and availability of better job options elsewhere). Demands of NCLB—The requirements of NCLB specify that all students, including those with disabilities, perfonn at proficient levels as a measure of state testing by the 2013-2014 school year. The pressures associated with these mandates are driving special education teachers from the profession. Changing student demographics—The number of students being identified with disabilities has outgrown the number of qualified special education teachers. Changes in certification requirements—Prior to NCLB, school districts could place teachers without proper certification in classrooms with students with leaming disabilities; however, by the end of the 2005-2006 school year, every
59 teacher in any public school had to be highly qualified with the proper certification. Thomton et al. (2007) proposed the following solutions to the special education teacher shortage problem: l. 2. 3. 4. Increase the pool of qualified special education teachers (e. g., Troops-to- Teachers program, which provides a stipend to military personnel who are interested in employment opportunities in special education; another proposed option is for districts to develop in-house training programs); Develop a proactive marketing strategy (e. g., have a well-organized website listing job opportunities, salary schedules, application forms, and district and school demographic data); Retain existing special education teachers—provide effective induction for new teachers, establish mentoring programs, ensure meaningful professional development, and maintain high quality working conditions (e. g., provide additional compensation for work beyond the school day, build in time for collaboration, lesson planning, and completing paperwork, and ensure clerical support and access to high quality curricular materials and supplements); Provide administrative support—principals must actively support and advocate for their special education staff “To retain special education teachers, principals must change the realities of the role of special education and establish school climates that reflect its importance. Principals must make teaching in special education more appealing.” (p. 237)
60 Theoretical models. To date, two conceptual models exist that explain special education teacher burnout (a) Brofenbrenner’s model, adapted by Brownell and Smith (as cited in Billingsley, 2004); and (b) Billingsley’s model (1993). As explained by Billingsley (2004), Brofenbrenner’s model (adapted by Brownell and Smith) describes the following four interrelated systems: l. The microsystem is the immediate setting within which the teacher spends most of his or her time, and it includes the complex interplay of the interactions that occur between teachers and their students. 2. The mesosystem is the interrelationship of workplace variables (e. g., administrative support and relations with colleagues). 3. The exosystem is the social structures (e. g., community socioeconomic level). 4. The macrosystem is the cultural values and particular ideologies of a particular community combined with economic factors that impact schools and career decisions of teachers. Brownell and Smith (1993) provide a theoretical model for understanding special education teacher attrition; however, the model is limited in that it was not designed to be tested. The underlying assumption of the model is that there is a complex interplay of relationships between the variables, and some variables may have higher correlates to attrition than others. Billingsley (1993) developed a theoretical model with three categories of factors that are hypothesized to influence special education teacher perceptions of j ob commitment and career plans. The categories are: (a) demographic factors, (b)
61 employment factors, and (c) external factors and personal factors (factors that are extemal to the teacher and the district of employment). Demographic and personal factors include a host of variables that Billingsley noted may influence career plans. Examples of such factors include race, gender, marital status, certification/credentialing, and breadwinner status. Billingsley (1993) theorized that employment factors include work conditions, including district and school climate, which may relate to teacher job commitment and career plans. District variables that may relate to job commitment and career plans include salary, benefits, and administrative support School variables may include: administrative, collegial, and parent support; type of teaching assignment; class size; and teacher responsibilities. Billingsley further hypothesized that when work conditions are favorable, teachers will experience professional fulfillment and other rewards, which may be related to increased job commitment and decisions to stay in special education teaching; conversely, Billingsley stated that if “work conditions are not as favorable, teachers are likely to experience fewer rewards and, thus, reduced commitment” (p. l2). Extemal factors, which include economic, societal, and institutional issues, are hypothesized to indirectly affect career plans through their influence on personal and employment factors. For example, during unfortunate economic times (e.g., recessions), teachers may stay in their positions longer due to the scarcity of job opportunities elsewhere. Societal factors include characteristics of the community and the cultural norms and values of the community. In undesirable or dangerous communities, lack of support and recognition may be a cause for teachers to leave the field in favor of other
56 ที่คาดว่าจะ worsen เป็นครูเกษียณ (Boyer & Gillespie, 2000) ธอร์นตัน et al. posited ที่ ขาดแคลนครูการศึกษาพิเศษ qualified เป็นชุมชนที่แพร่หลาย ไม่ว่าโปรแกรมการศึกษาพิเศษ (เช่น ชนิดของความพิการหรือชนิดของรูปแบบบริการจัดส่ง) ประวัติ นักวิจัยได้จัดทำเอกสารขาดแคลนครูการศึกษาพิเศษใน field (Billingsley et al.. 1995 ตั๋วแลกเงินได้ Bobbitt คุก 1997; & ตั๋วแลกเงินได้ Bobbitt, et al., l996 ตั๋วแลกเงินได้และ al., 2006 Brownell et al., 1995) ปัญหาขาดแคลนทำให้นักเรียนหลายคนพิการได้รับการสอน โดยคุณครู unqualified โรงเรียนผู้ดูแลมักจะมี การรับสมัครครูแทนการ fill ช่องว่าง กำหนดให้ครูไม่ มี certification เหมาะสมกับ fill ตำแหน่งงานว่าง (Katsiyannis จาง & Conroy, 2003) นี่คือท้อโดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งเมื่อพิจารณาความต้องการของผู้เรียนที่ต้องการ instmction เฉพาะและบริการหลากหลาย การศึกษาล่าสุดมี affirmed ขาดแคลนที่สำคัญของครูการศึกษาพิเศษ สำนักแรงงานสถิติ (สหรัฐอเมริกากรมแรงงาน 2008) รายงานที่พร้อมใช้งานงานสำหรับครูการศึกษาพิเศษคาดว่าจะเพิ่มขึ้น งานควรใหญ่เป็นหลายเขตมีรายงานปัญหากับ finding sufficient จำนวนครูการศึกษาพิเศษ certified ผลเช่น deficiencies เขตโรงเรียนมักจะบังคับให้ทำลดมากจำเป็นต้องใช้บริการ บำบัด และเพิ่มขนาดของชั้นเรียนการศึกษาพิเศษ (Cochran-สมิธ Feiman Nemser, Mclntyre, & Demers, 2008) Cochran Smith et al. (2008) ระบุ ramifications นิยมที่เกิดจากการขาดแคลนครูการศึกษาพิเศษ รวมผลร้ายนักเรียน 57 compromised educational experiences while in school. When students with disabilities are not educated by highly qualified special education teachers, they do not receive the intensive, individualized instruction they need, Which may result in low achievement, and larger numbers of incompetent graduates who will not be able to compete for jobs. As policymakers continue to study the conundrum of special education teacher attrition and grapple with finding creative ways to prevent it, research indicates that recruitment strategies have proven insufficient. The special education shortage remains because such high numbers of newly hired teachers leave after only a few years in the profession (Ingersoll, 2001). Ingersoll reports that of the teaching areas with the highest numbers of teachers who leave (special education, math, and science, respectively), the area of special education is most severely impacted by teacher attrition. Fuithennore, special education teachers are likely to leave their special education assignments in favor of other teaching positions within the general education setting (Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe, Cook, Bobbitt, & Weber, 1996). Boe (2006) analyzed trends on the supply and demand of special education teachers over a period of 16 years (1987-2003), during which the shortage reached a level of nearly 54,000 nationwide, which was approximately ll% of the total teaching population. The shortage of qualified special education teachers has vast legal ramifications. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) of 2004 and the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 require that highly qualified teachers serve for students in need of special education services (No Child Left Behind, n.d.). As a result of the shortage of highly qualified special education teachers, many 58 school districts are faced with increasing numbers of formal state complaints and litigious Clllfi PTOCCSS C3565. Thomton et al. (2007) outlined the primary issues contributing to special education teacher shortages. Those issues appear to be the following: l A lack of qualified applicants. High rates of attrition resulting from (a) employment issues (e. g., poor working conditions, salary-related issues, unmanageable caseloads, and poor school climate); (b) personal issues (e. g., lifestyle, family, and relocations); (c) support-related issues (e. g., lack of colleague and administrative support); (d) student-related issues (e. g., discipline problems, low levels of motivation, and insufficient student progress); and (e) other issues (e.g., retirement and availability of better job options elsewhere). Demands of NCLB—The requirements of NCLB specify that all students, including those with disabilities, perfonn at proficient levels as a measure of state testing by the 2013-2014 school year. The pressures associated with these mandates are driving special education teachers from the profession. Changing student demographics—The number of students being identified with disabilities has outgrown the number of qualified special education teachers. Changes in certification requirements—Prior to NCLB, school districts could place teachers without proper certification in classrooms with students with leaming disabilities; however, by the end of the 2005-2006 school year, every
59 teacher in any public school had to be highly qualified with the proper certification. Thomton et al. (2007) proposed the following solutions to the special education teacher shortage problem: l. 2. 3. 4. Increase the pool of qualified special education teachers (e. g., Troops-to- Teachers program, which provides a stipend to military personnel who are interested in employment opportunities in special education; another proposed option is for districts to develop in-house training programs); Develop a proactive marketing strategy (e. g., have a well-organized website listing job opportunities, salary schedules, application forms, and district and school demographic data); Retain existing special education teachers—provide effective induction for new teachers, establish mentoring programs, ensure meaningful professional development, and maintain high quality working conditions (e. g., provide additional compensation for work beyond the school day, build in time for collaboration, lesson planning, and completing paperwork, and ensure clerical support and access to high quality curricular materials and supplements); Provide administrative support—principals must actively support and advocate for their special education staff “To retain special education teachers, principals must change the realities of the role of special education and establish school climates that reflect its importance. Principals must make teaching in special education more appealing.” (p. 237)
60 Theoretical models. To date, two conceptual models exist that explain special education teacher burnout (a) Brofenbrenner’s model, adapted by Brownell and Smith (as cited in Billingsley, 2004); and (b) Billingsley’s model (1993). As explained by Billingsley (2004), Brofenbrenner’s model (adapted by Brownell and Smith) describes the following four interrelated systems: l. The microsystem is the immediate setting within which the teacher spends most of his or her time, and it includes the complex interplay of the interactions that occur between teachers and their students. 2. The mesosystem is the interrelationship of workplace variables (e. g., administrative support and relations with colleagues). 3. The exosystem is the social structures (e. g., community socioeconomic level). 4. The macrosystem is the cultural values and particular ideologies of a particular community combined with economic factors that impact schools and career decisions of teachers. Brownell and Smith (1993) provide a theoretical model for understanding special education teacher attrition; however, the model is limited in that it was not designed to be tested. The underlying assumption of the model is that there is a complex interplay of relationships between the variables, and some variables may have higher correlates to attrition than others. Billingsley (1993) developed a theoretical model with three categories of factors that are hypothesized to influence special education teacher perceptions of j ob commitment and career plans. The categories are: (a) demographic factors, (b)
61 employment factors, and (c) external factors and personal factors (factors that are extemal to the teacher and the district of employment). Demographic and personal factors include a host of variables that Billingsley noted may influence career plans. Examples of such factors include race, gender, marital status, certification/credentialing, and breadwinner status. Billingsley (1993) theorized that employment factors include work conditions, including district and school climate, which may relate to teacher job commitment and career plans. District variables that may relate to job commitment and career plans include salary, benefits, and administrative support School variables may include: administrative, collegial, and parent support; type of teaching assignment; class size; and teacher responsibilities. Billingsley further hypothesized that when work conditions are favorable, teachers will experience professional fulfillment and other rewards, which may be related to increased job commitment and decisions to stay in special education teaching; conversely, Billingsley stated that if “work conditions are not as favorable, teachers are likely to experience fewer rewards and, thus, reduced commitment” (p. l2). Extemal factors, which include economic, societal, and institutional issues, are hypothesized to indirectly affect career plans through their influence on personal and employment factors. For example, during unfortunate economic times (e.g., recessions), teachers may stay in their positions longer due to the scarcity of job opportunities elsewhere. Societal factors include characteristics of the community and the cultural norms and values of the community. In undesirable or dangerous communities, lack of support and recognition may be a cause for teachers to leave the field in favor of other
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