For numerical model validation, in addition to the selected food items, experiments were also carried out for a homogenous model food system. Freeze–thaw stable gelatin (No. G-2500, Sigma Aldrich) was used to create a cylindrical model food system (Fig. 2B). In the five chosen real food products, the moisture content of the high moisture food items (beefsteaks, concentrated orange juice, and peppers & onions) ranged from 60% to 90% (w.b.). Hence, the gelatin based model food system was made at 75% moisture content (w.b.) and 25% (w.b.) gelatin, to mimic the phase change behavior of real food items.