4. Study 2
4.1. Research questions and hypotheses
After establishing to what extent the effects we found for
American undergraduate students were also found for German
graduate students, Study 2 aimed to decompose the effects of the
design elements color and shape by examining them in separate
designs. In particular, we asked:
Hypothesis 4. Do the design elements color and shape in a
multimedia learning material individually induce positive emotions
in learners? Based on the previous research reported above
we hypothesize that the warm colors induce more positive emotions
than neutral colors, and that round face-like shapes induce
more positive emotions than neutral shapes.
Hypothesis 5. How do the design elements color and shape individually
affect cognitive outcomes such as invested mental effort,
perceived task difficulty, and learning outcomes (comprehension
and transfer)? Based on previous research we hypothesize that
warm colors result in higher comprehension test scores, transfer
test scores, and invested mental effort, and lower perceived task
difficulty than neutral colors, and, likewise, that round, face-like
shapes result in higher comprehension test scores, transfer test
scores, and invested mental effort, and lower perceived task difficulty
than neutral shapes.
Hypothesis 6. How do the design elements color and shape individually
affect affective outcomes such as motivation, user satisfaction,
and perception about learning achievement? Based on
previous research we hypothesize that warm colors result in higher
motivation, higher user satisfaction, and a more positive perception
about learning achievement than neutral colors, and that round
face-like shapes result in higher motivation, higher user satisfaction,
and a more positive perception about learning achievement
than neutral shapes.
4.2. Method
4.2.1. Participants and design
Participantswere 103 students recruited fromaGerman university.
There were 11 male and 92 female participants, and all of them were
4. Study 24.1. Research questions and hypothesesAfter establishing to what extent the effects we found forAmerican undergraduate students were also found for Germangraduate students, Study 2 aimed to decompose the effects of thedesign elements color and shape by examining them in separatedesigns. In particular, we asked:Hypothesis 4. Do the design elements color and shape in amultimedia learning material individually induce positive emotionsin learners? Based on the previous research reported abovewe hypothesize that the warm colors induce more positive emotionsthan neutral colors, and that round face-like shapes inducemore positive emotions than neutral shapes.Hypothesis 5. How do the design elements color and shape individuallyaffect cognitive outcomes such as invested mental effort,perceived task difficulty, and learning outcomes (comprehensionand transfer)? Based on previous research we hypothesize thatwarm colors result in higher comprehension test scores, transfertest scores, and invested mental effort, and lower perceived taskdifficulty than neutral colors, and, likewise, that round, face-likeshapes result in higher comprehension test scores, transfer testscores, and invested mental effort, and lower perceived task difficultythan neutral shapes.Hypothesis 6. How do the design elements color and shape individuallyaffect affective outcomes such as motivation, user satisfaction,and perception about learning achievement? Based onprevious research we hypothesize that warm colors result in highermotivation, higher user satisfaction, and a more positive perceptionabout learning achievement than neutral colors, and that roundface-like shapes result in higher motivation, higher user satisfaction,and a more positive perception about learning achievementthan neutral shapes.4.2. Method4.2.1. Participants and designParticipantswere 103 students recruited fromaGerman university.There were 11 male and 92 female participants, and all of them were
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