Gel permeation chromatography (GPC),also known as size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), is a chromatographic technique that employs specialized columns to separate natural and synthetic polymers, biopolymers, or proteins on the basis of their size. GPC is the most widely used technique for the analysis of polymers, in relation to other techniques of molecular weight(MW) measurement; the analysis is very fast (compared to older techniques) and can be carried out in a couple of hours. It can be used for samples soluble in organic and can be carried out in a couple of hours. It can be used for sample soluble in organic and aqueous eluents, and for MWs from approximately 100 to several million daltons(Da). With GPC, it is also possible to obtain the MW of polymers that are soluble only at high temperatures. Be-Sides, in contrast to traditional techniques, it yields all MW averages and the molecular weight distribution(MWD).17.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDThe word chromatography was used for the first time in 1906 by a Russian botanist, Mikhail Tswett, who described it as a new technique to separate the components of complex mixtures(1,2). His work was published in the Proceedings of the German Botanical Society; there he described a technique based on the partition of solutes between a stationary solid adsorbent and a moving liquid phase. The experiment consisted in pouring a small quantity of the solution of pigments, on the top of a vertical column of absorbent, followed by a flow of pure solvent, whereupon a series of colored bands formed down the length of the column in a sequence determined by mass relationship and absorption coefficients(3). Despite the tremendous potential impact of his discovery, chromatography was not revived until 1931, under the stimulus of widespread research on the separation of carotenoids from several natural sources by adsorption analysis on fibrous alumina (4). Since the cited work was published, chromatography application has been extended over practically all areas of chemistry. In polymer science, chromatography was used for the first time by Moore in 1963 to determine the MWD of polymer (5). The technique was really in vented by Lathe and Ruthven(6). Who were working at Queen Charlotte’s Hospital in London. They received the John Scott Award for their invention. In 1964 Moore, from the Dow Chemical Company, prepared GPC columns using crosslinked polystyrene with controlled pore size(7); after publishing his results, there was a rapid increase of research activity in the field of measurement of the MW of polymers.James Waters, industry pioneer and entrepreneur, had founded Waters Associates(WA) in 1958 in order to invent instruments for others. He worked with five employees Moore required from WA to develop a 0.1 ml volume flow cell, which would enable him to develop an instrument using gel columns to analyze the MW of polymers (natural and synthetic macromolecules). After experimental work by Moore, followed by negotiations between Dow and WA and additional hard work to scale up the synthesis of the polymeric gel used in the columns, the invention of the GPC was completed, becoming a major breakthrough for WA. In 1963, Waters obtained an exclusive license to Dow’s patent (5) for GPC and introduced Waters’ first liquid chromatography (LC) system, the GPC 100, which was larger than a refrigerator.17.1 PRICIPLES OF GPC17.3.1 Principle of SeparationThe fundamental principle of separation by size exclusion in a column is represented in Figure 17.1. The column is packed with semisolid particles of a polymer whose structure iscrosslinked to form a gel and whose pore distribution has been controlled during the synthesis of the polymer. Molecules that are smaller than the pore size can enter inside the pores and therefore have a longer path and a longer transit time than larger molecules which cannot enter the pores. Molecules larger than the pore size cannot enter the pores and elute before smaller molecules. This condition is called total exclusion because of the fact that the largest molecules are rejected from entering the pores, as shown in Figure 17.1. Molecules that can enter the pores will have an average residence time in the particles that depends on the molecular size and shape. The separation parameters in GPC are obtained by the distribution coefficient K_d, related to the internal volume according to K_d=V_(i,acc)/V_i =(V_e-V_0)/V_0 (17.1)Where V_(i,acc)is the accessible internal volume, V_i is the internal volume, V_e is the elution volume, and V_0is the external volume or interparticle volume. When K_d = 0, it means that the molecules are excluded; 0 The fundamental principle of separation by SEC was described by Benoit and coworkers in 1967. They found an excellent correlation between the elution volume and a dynamically based molecular size, the hydrodynamic volume V_H^( 1) for a wide range of species and large-scale molecular architectures(9). Their theory assumed a thermodynamic separation principle considering that the elution volume is independent of the flow rate. Recently, it has been proved that the radius of gyration is more appropriate than the hydrodynamic volume (10). The radius of gyration R_gis defined as the mean square distance away from the center of gravity (11). Its mathematical definition is:R_g^( 2)=(1/N) ∑_(i=1)^N▒r_i^( 2) (17.2)1_█(The hydrodynamic volume is proportional to the product of the molecular weight M and the intrinsic viscosity [ɳ];that@is,〖 V〗_H^ ∞ [ɳ] M.)Which is the radius of gyration of N scattering points located at distances r_i. In mechanical terms, R_g can be interpreted as the radius of a thin ring that has the same mass and same moment of inertia as the body when this is centered around the same axis (12). Furthermore, calculations indicate that the morphology of polymers in solution is not spherical in overall shape., but rather ellipsoidal (13). In terms of their overall shape, branched polymers are more symmetric than linear ones(14). This explains some of the differences between linear andbranched polymers with respect to size exclusion. Similar arguments have been used to explain the failure of R_gto provide an appropriate size measure for the SEC of oligomers of polyethylene and polystyrene (15,16). GPC isthe technique of choice for rapid and reliable characterization(17) of MW averages, MWD, and molecular structure for all types of macromolecules __ proteins, oligomers, natural polymers, and synthetic polymers.
The polymer characteristics that can be measured by GPC can be listed as
Absolute MW;
MWD;
MW averages (see below) and dispersity of the MWD (formerly called polydispersity);
Branching and structure;
Molecular size;
Copolymer composition
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