Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy
Perinatal Mortality, Morbidity, and Birth Injury
Perinatal mortality
In diabetic pregnancy, perinatal mortality has decreased 30-fold since the discovery of insulin in 1922 and the introduction of intensive obstetrical and infant care in the 1970s. Nevertheless, the current perinatal mortality rates among women who are diabetic remain approximately twice those observed in the nondiabetic population.
Congenital malformations, respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), and extreme prematurity account for most perinatal deaths in contemporary diabetic pregnancies .
Birth injury
Injuries of birth, including shoulder dystocia and brachial plexus trauma, are more common among infants of diabetic mothers, and macrosomic fetuses are at the highest risk.
Most of the birth injuries occurring to infants of diabetic mothers are associated with difficult vaginal delivery and shoulder dystocia. Although shoulder dystocia occurs in 0.3-0.5% of vaginal deliveries among healthy pregnant women, the incidence is 2- to 4-fold higher in women with diabetes. Common birth injuries associated with diabetes are brachial plexus injury, facial nerve injury, and cephalohematoma. With strict glycemic control, the birth injury rate has been shown to be only slightly higher than controls (3.2 vs 2.5%).
Currently, clinical ability to predict shoulder dystocia is poor. Warning signs during labor (labor protraction, suspected fetal macrosomia, need for operative vaginal delivery) successfully predict only 30% of these events.
Polycythemia
A central venous hemoglobin concentration greater than 20 g/dL or a hematocrit value greater than 65% (polycythemia) is not uncommon in infants of diabetic mothers and is related to glycemic control. Hyperglycemia is a powerful stimulus to fetal erythropoietin production, mediated by decreased fetal oxygen tension. Untreated neonatal polycythemia may promote vascular sludging, ischemia, and infarction of vital tissues, including the kidneys and central nervous system.
Hypoglycemia
Approximately 15-25% of neonates delivered from women with diabetes during gestation develop hypoglycemia during the immediate newborn period.[41] Neonatal hypoglycemia is less frequent when tight glycemic control is maintained during pregnancy[42] and in labor. Unrecognized postnatal hypoglycemia may lead to neonatal seizures, coma, and brain damage.
Neonatal Hypocalcemia
Up to 50% of infants of diabetic mothers have low levels of serum calcium (< 7 mg/100 mL). These changes in calcium appear to be attributable to a functional hypoparathyroidism, though the exact pathophysiology is not well understood. With improved management of diabetes in pregnancy, the rate of neonatal hypocalcemia has been reduced to 5% or less.
Postnatal hyperbilirubinemia
Hyperbilirubinemia occurs in approximately 25% of infants of diabetic mothers, a rate approximately twice that in a healthy population. The causes of hyperbilirubinemia in infants of diabetic mothers are multiple, but prematurity and polycythemia are the primary contributing factors. Increased destruction of red blood cells contributes to the risk of jaundice and kernicterus. Treatment of this complication is usually with phototherapy, but exchange transfusions may be necessary if bilirubin levels are markedly elevated.
Respiratory problems
The nondiabetic fetus achieves pulmonary maturity at a mean gestational age of 34-35 weeks. By 37 weeks' gestation, more than 99% of healthy newborn infants have mature lung profiles as assessed by phospholipid assays. However, in a diabetic pregnancy, the risk of respiratory distress may not pass until after 38.5 gestational weeks.
Until recently, neonatal respiratory distress syndrome was the most common and serious morbidity in infants of diabetic mothers. In the 1970s, improved prenatal maternal management for diabetes and new techniques in obstetrics for timing and mode of delivery resulted in a dramatic decline in its incidence, from 31% to 3%.[43] Nevertheless, respiratory distress syndrome continues to be a relatively preventable complication.
The majority of the literature indicates a significant biochemical and physiologic delay in infants of diabetic mothers. Tyden et al[44] and Landon and colleagues[45] reported that fetal lung maturity occurred later in pregnancies with poor maternal glycemic control, regardless of class of diabetes.
Risk factors
In 1995, Moses et al assessed the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in patients with various risk factors and recommended universal testing.[46] Gestational diabetes mellitus was diagnosed in 6.7% of the women overall, in 8.5% of the women aged 30 years or older, in 12.3% of the women with a preconception body mass index of 30 kg/m2 or greater, and in 11.6% of women with a family history of diabetes in a first-degree relative. A combination of one or all of these risk factors predicted gestational diabetes mellitus in 61% of cases. Gestational diabetes mellitus was present in 4.8% of the women without risk factors.
A nested case-control study indicated that another risk factor for the development of gestational diabetes is the presence of hypertension before pregnancy or during early pregnancy. The report, which looked at 381 women with hypertension or prehypertension (the latter being defined in the study as 120-139/80-89 mmHg), as well as at 942 control subjects, found that prehypertension before or during early pregnancy was associated with a slightly increased risk of gestational diabetes, but hypertension was associated with a twofold increase in risk.High cholesterol and egg intake prior to and during pregnancy increase the risk of gestational diabetes.
เบาหวานและการตั้งครรภ์การตายปริกำเนิด Morbidity และเกิดบาดเจ็บการตายปริกำเนิดในการตั้งครรภ์โรคเบาหวาน การตายปริกำเนิดลด 30-fold ตั้งแต่การค้นพบของอินซูลินในค.ศ. 1922 และการแนะนำการดูแลทางสูติกรรม และทารกแบบเร่งรัดในทศวรรษ 1970 อย่างไรก็ตาม อัตราการตายปริกำเนิดปัจจุบันสตรีที่เป็นโรคเบาหวานครั้งประมาณสองที่พบในประชากร nondiabeticMalformations ธา ทางเดินหายใจกลุ่มอาการทุกข์ (RDS), และ prematurity มากบัญชีสำหรับการตายปริกำเนิดส่วนใหญ่ในการตั้งครรภ์โรคเบาหวานร่วมสมัยเกิดบาดเจ็บบาดเจ็บเกิด รวมทั้งการคลอดติดไหล่และบาดเจ็บของข่ายประสาทแขน มีทั่วไปในหมู่ทารกของมารดาที่เป็นโรคเบาหวาน และ macrosomic fetuses ที่มีความเสี่ยงสูงส่วนใหญ่ของการบาดเจ็บเกิดที่เกิดกับทารกของมารดาที่เป็นโรคเบาหวานเกี่ยวข้องกับการคลอดยาก และการคลอดติดไหล่ แม้ว่าการคลอดติดไหล่เกิดขึ้นใน 0.3-0.5% ของการจัดส่งที่ช่องคลอดในหญิงตั้งครรภ์เพื่อสุขภาพ เกิดเป็น 2 - ถึง 16.00 - fold สูงในผู้หญิงที่มีโรคเบาหวาน บาดเจ็บเกิดทั่วไปที่เกี่ยวข้องกับโรคเบาหวานมีข่ายประสาทแขนบาดเจ็บ บาดเจ็บเส้นประสาทใบหน้า และ cephalohematoma มีการควบคุมเข้มงวด glycemic ได้รับการแสดงอัตราการบาดเจ็บเกิดเป็นเพียงเล็กน้อยมากกว่าควบคุม (3.2 vs 2.5%)ขณะนี้ สามารถทำนายการคลอดติดไหล่ทางคลินิกไม่ดี สัญญาณเตือนระหว่างแรงงาน (แรงงาน protraction, macrosomia สงสัยครรภ์ ต้องการคลอดวิธีปฏิบัติตนภาย) ทำนายเพียง 30% ของกิจกรรมเหล่านี้เสร็จเรียบร้อยแล้วPolycythemiaA central venous hemoglobin concentration greater than 20 g/dL or a hematocrit value greater than 65% (polycythemia) is not uncommon in infants of diabetic mothers and is related to glycemic control. Hyperglycemia is a powerful stimulus to fetal erythropoietin production, mediated by decreased fetal oxygen tension. Untreated neonatal polycythemia may promote vascular sludging, ischemia, and infarction of vital tissues, including the kidneys and central nervous system.HypoglycemiaApproximately 15-25% of neonates delivered from women with diabetes during gestation develop hypoglycemia during the immediate newborn period.[41] Neonatal hypoglycemia is less frequent when tight glycemic control is maintained during pregnancy[42] and in labor. Unrecognized postnatal hypoglycemia may lead to neonatal seizures, coma, and brain damage.Neonatal HypocalcemiaUp to 50% of infants of diabetic mothers have low levels of serum calcium (< 7 mg/100 mL). These changes in calcium appear to be attributable to a functional hypoparathyroidism, though the exact pathophysiology is not well understood. With improved management of diabetes in pregnancy, the rate of neonatal hypocalcemia has been reduced to 5% or less.Postnatal hyperbilirubinemiaHyperbilirubinemia occurs in approximately 25% of infants of diabetic mothers, a rate approximately twice that in a healthy population. The causes of hyperbilirubinemia in infants of diabetic mothers are multiple, but prematurity and polycythemia are the primary contributing factors. Increased destruction of red blood cells contributes to the risk of jaundice and kernicterus. Treatment of this complication is usually with phototherapy, but exchange transfusions may be necessary if bilirubin levels are markedly elevated.Respiratory problemsThe nondiabetic fetus achieves pulmonary maturity at a mean gestational age of 34-35 weeks. By 37 weeks' gestation, more than 99% of healthy newborn infants have mature lung profiles as assessed by phospholipid assays. However, in a diabetic pregnancy, the risk of respiratory distress may not pass until after 38.5 gestational weeks.Until recently, neonatal respiratory distress syndrome was the most common and serious morbidity in infants of diabetic mothers. In the 1970s, improved prenatal maternal management for diabetes and new techniques in obstetrics for timing and mode of delivery resulted in a dramatic decline in its incidence, from 31% to 3%.[43] Nevertheless, respiratory distress syndrome continues to be a relatively preventable complication.The majority of the literature indicates a significant biochemical and physiologic delay in infants of diabetic mothers. Tyden et al[44] and Landon and colleagues[45] reported that fetal lung maturity occurred later in pregnancies with poor maternal glycemic control, regardless of class of diabetes.Risk factorsIn 1995, Moses et al assessed the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in patients with various risk factors and recommended universal testing.[46] Gestational diabetes mellitus was diagnosed in 6.7% of the women overall, in 8.5% of the women aged 30 years or older, in 12.3% of the women with a preconception body mass index of 30 kg/m2 or greater, and in 11.6% of women with a family history of diabetes in a first-degree relative. A combination of one or all of these risk factors predicted gestational diabetes mellitus in 61% of cases. Gestational diabetes mellitus was present in 4.8% of the women without risk factors.A nested case-control study indicated that another risk factor for the development of gestational diabetes is the presence of hypertension before pregnancy or during early pregnancy. The report, which looked at 381 women with hypertension or prehypertension (the latter being defined in the study as 120-139/80-89 mmHg), as well as at 942 control subjects, found that prehypertension before or during early pregnancy was associated with a slightly increased risk of gestational diabetes, but hypertension was associated with a twofold increase in risk.High cholesterol and egg intake prior to and during pregnancy increase the risk of gestational diabetes.
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