A number of additional studies have been conducted since the most recent meta-analytic undertaking in 2003. Four of
these have been conducted in schools of engineering. Hsieh and Knight (2008) describe two studies that they conducted
comparing problem-based learning and traditional, lecture-based instruction for introducing library skills to engineering
students. In the first study, a pilot study, the authors (Hsieh & Knight, 2008) found that lecture-based students did slightly
better on an objective quiz of eleven questions but the problem-based students did slightly better on a set of six reflective
questions. In the second study, employing a theory-oriented and practice-oriented pre-test/post-test methodology, the authors
(Hsieh & Knight, 2008) found that problem-based students improved significantly across the pre-test to post-test
whereas lecture-bases students did not. However, lecture-based students did score slightly, though not significantly,
higher than problem-based students on the pre-test.
Mitchell, Canavan, and Smith (2010) looked at learning outcomes and student achievement for students completing a
communications systems course in a problem-based learning format compared to a traditional, lecture-based format. Student
achievement was assessed over a seven-year period as the course shifted from a traditional, lecture-based course to a
problem-based learning course. The authors (Mitchell et al., 2010) rightly caution about making direct comparison statements,
as the two approaches were not pitted against each other. The authors (Mitchell et al., 2010) found a slight increase in
assessment scores as the course shifted from a traditional, lecture-based to a problem-based course. The authors (Mitchell
et al., 2010) also found a significant drop in course failures from 18% to 0% across the transition from lecture-based to
problem-based instruction.
Finally, Downing, Ning, and Shin (2011) looked at the impact of problem-based learning versus traditional, lecture-based
instruction on the experience of students exposed to these methods as well as the development of meta-cognitive skills
among these students. Again, the study was conducted in an engineering school, specifically the building design program. The
authors (Downing et al., 2011) used a standardized measure of meta-cognitive skills development, the Learning and Study
Strategies Inventory. The authors (Downing et al., 2011) found that students in the problem-based classroom reported
significantly higher overall levels of satisfaction compare to students in the traditional, lecture-based classroom. With regards
to meta-cognitive skills, only students in the problem-based curriculum showed significant self-perceived improvement.
In general, these studies in engineering classroom environments support the three meta-analyses in medical school
classrooms. Students in a problem-based classroom developed better problem-solving, reflection, and meta-cognitive skills,
yet students in a traditional, lecture-based classroom developed more knowledge acquisition. Additionally, students exposed
to a problem-based classroom did report a higher level of satisfaction, in some respects, with the learning experience.
Finally, and most relevant, three additional studies since 2003 have been conducted looking at the impact of problembased
learning in the management classroom. Significantly, in the entire special issue of the Journal of Management Education
dedicated to problem-based learning (October 2004), among numerous papers defining problem-based learning, its
theoretical foundations, advice on and examples of implementation, there are only a few case studies but no empirical
research aimed at evaluating problem-based learning.
Bamford, Karjalainen, and Jenavs (2012) focused on the impact of problem-based assessment versus final exam assessment
on teaching operations management. The authors (Bamford et al., 2012) defined problem-based assessment as containing
“a realistic, unstructured, and informal problem” which required students to “define the problem further as well as
solve it, consider alternative solutions, weigh the pros and cons, and collect relevant information” (p. 1498). Bamford et al.
(2008) found that problem-based assessment lead to the highest grades among students exposed to the different assessment
approaches, a mix of problem-based assessment and final exam lead to the next highest grades, and final exam along lead to
the lowest grades. Additionally, students exposed to the problem-based assessment reported significantly more learning,
more useful feedback, more motivation to spend time on the assessment, and more intellectual stimulation from the
assessment approach than students taking only the final exam (Bamford et al., 2012). However, it is unclear how to evaluate
these results on assessment techniques and relate them to the above results on instructional techniques.
Stanley and Marsden (2012) reported a case study in which problem-based learning was implemented within an accounting
classroom. The case study focused on a questioning approach for gathering information to solve the problems
delivered and the use of term-long cohorts of students working together on the problems. A majority of the report focused on
implementation of problem-based learning in the management classroom with little or no empirical data presented, other
than a descriptive case study. The students taking part in the case study generally rated the experience positively on an endof-term
survey (Stanley & Marsden, 2012) though there were no comparisons with other instructional approaches. However,
students did rate the workload and challenge of the problem-based approach negatively (Stanley & Marsden, 2012). Again, it
is difficult to reconcile these results with those reported in medical and engineering schools since this was a descriptive case
study and no comparisons with other instructional approaches were done. But students in an accounting classroom do
positively rate, in some respects, problem-based learning.
Finally, Hartman, Moberg, and Lambert (2013) considered problem-based learning in an introductory business classroom.
However, rather than assessing knowledge acquisition, problem-solving skills, and student satisfaction, Hartman et al. (2013)
took the novel approach of focusing on student ability to tolerate ambiguity and the influence this has on coping skills in the
problem-based classroom. Rather than looking at cognitive skills impacted by problem-based instruction these authors
focused on affective skills. The authors (Hartman et al., 2013) defined tolerance for ambiguity as “the way an individual or
group perceives and processes information about ambiguous situations or stimuli when confronted with unfamiliar, complex,
or incongruent cues” (p. 3). They (Hartman et al., 2013) further define coping as “behavioral or cognitive efforts to manage
situations that are evaluated to be stressful” (p. 4). Hartman et al. (2013) found that tolerance for ambiguity significantly