and
that there is greater variation in the quality of parent–child
relationships in larger families (Ward, Spitze, & Deane,
2009). Given the importance of reciprocity in intergenerational
relationships (Kunemund & Rein, 1999; Grundy,
2005), it is possible that the greater resources parents of
smaller families are able to provide for their children have
some “payback” in the form of stronger ties with their adult
children later in life (Henretta, Hill, Li, Soldo, & Wolf,
1997); if so, the association between number of children
and indicators of support from children to older parents
might not be linear. Second, in line with Cantor’s hierarchical
compensation model (Cantor & Brennan, 2000), older
people with no or few children may “compensate” by developing
stronger links with friends and other relatives. These
wider ties are recognized as important influences on older
people’s well-being in their own right (Cornwell, 2011).