4. Discussion and conclusions
The analysis of the four cases, interpreted against the background of our conceptual framework, draws a differentiated
picture of how ServPPINs evolve, how the loci of innovation change in the course of their evolution, and which key factors
matter. ServPPINs are temporary constellations for building and establishing new or significantly modified services in a
public sector environment. Although the phases of evolution of a ServPPIN should not necessarily be understood as a linear
sequence, they are nevertheless significant in that they show distinctive features. The differentiation into four levels or loci
was useful to work out these differences. Although all loci matter in all four phases, the mechanism at play and their relative
importance differ. On these grounds, a number of insights can be extracted with regard to our first research question,
referring to the changing significance of driving forces and barriers of change.
Developments in the context of ServPPINs are important to consider, in particular in the early phase. Problem pressure
needs to be translated into a case for action before first initiatives to launch a ServPPIN can be started. Key individuals, such
as public and/or private managers, local politicians, or key users of transport services, also play an important role for
mobilising support and subsequently driving the process forward in all phases. General support from the political level for
the ServPPINs envisaged – although it may vary in its form and significance – is another important enabler of change
processes. Finally, the establishment of a stable institutional framework is essential to ensure the continuity of a ServPPIN.
Other factors of influence are more difficult to interpret and play a significant role only in some of the cases studied.
A closer observation of the patterns of change in the four cases, and of the discretionary factors and strategic options in
particular, points to a hypothesis regarding two typical process models that successful ServPPINs can follow. These models
differ in terms of how the loci of innovation change in the course of the evolution of a ServPPIN, and in terms of the different
strategic options to those in charge of managing. The first model pathway, which is inspired by the cases of ITS Vienna and
SiS Oslo in particular, but also by some features of the Flexus case, starts with the definition of the wider organisational and
institutional settings inside of which specific and well-planned R&D and piloting activities are launched. These are
conducted either by purpose-built innovation networks led by a strong public sector organisation, or they are outsourced to
a network of external knowledge providers under close supervision of a public sector organisation.
The second model pathway is mainly inspired by the compano example, but draws also on lessons learnt from the Flexus
and SIS Oslo cases. It starts with experimental initiatives to develop and test new types of services, without embedding
them systematically in an elaborated organisational and institutional frame. The advantage of this approach resides in the
possibility of coming up with non-conventional solutions that are not constrained from the outset by the prevailing
organisational models. The service innovation is refined and improved in an experimental way, with public funding possibly
supporting R&D and piloting activities. Organisational and institutional embedding takes place at the end of the process,
when the service model as such has already proven its viability at a limited scale, but requires the support by a large
professional organisation to be taken up widely and be integrated into a comprehensive system of service provision.
These two model pathways should not be mis-interpreted as simple ‘bottom-up’ or ‘top-down’ strategies for initiating
ServPPINs, because the model pathways cover the entirety of the evolution of a ServPPIN from its inception to wider uptake
and offer various strategic options.
As regards the roles of public and private actors in the evolution of ServPPINs, which are at the core of our second
research question, the two models point to a differentiated picture. The first model pathway requires an initial step of
defining institutional and organisational framework conditions; a situation that lends itself to a leading role of public sector
organisations in this first phase. It is only later on in the process that private sector organisations are successfully brought on
board. The extent to which private sector organisations can take over leading roles depends on the capacities of the public
sector to supervise their activities. In this regard, institutional and cultural differences across countries seem to matter.
The second model relies more strongly on initial private sector engagement to launch and pilot new solutions that do not fit
into the established and organisational institutional frameworks. However, in order to turn them into a widespread success,
the public sector needs to be brought on board in a later stage.
With the exception of compano, the role of the private sector has been comparatively modest in the cases studied.
Private sector organisations were involved to varying degrees in the different phases and give evidence of the growing
attention to New Public Management principles, but in three cases the lead remained with the public sector. This modest
role of the private sector may have been influenced by the choice of cases from two countries which have a tradition of a
strong State with well-developed capacities and competencies, and a culture that is public sector-oriented when it comes to