Table 1 presents a comparison of the statistical results for the three groups’ vocabulary learning performance, as
influenced by varying formats of learning tasks. The results indicated that the students who used digital flashcards
to learn vocabulary collaboratively in small groups outperformed those in the other two experimental conditions in
the post-test (group-based > peer-exchange > self-practice; F = 15.981; p < .001), with no significant group
differences found in the pre-test (F = .131; p = .878).