Secondly, policy instruments have been especially important in the literature on the transformation of the state in the late twenti- eth century as a consequence of processes of public sector reform, the technological revolution, and devolution, as well as glo- balization and Europeanization. They have become an important focus as traditional methods of command-and-control have given way to more flexible and inclusive modes of state–citizen interaction, also in relation to privatization processes (Salamon, 2002).