of the foot-back technique (Figure 8).27 Ball velocities are not
different between foot-up and foot-back techniques.27 The
back leg provides most of the upward and forward push,
whereas the front leg provides a stable post to allow rotational
momentum. Large horizontal braking forces are developed
with the front foot at landing (stage 8), which is important
from a training standpoint. The foot-up serving technique
requires eccentric training of the lower body for landing.
A foot-back serving technique requires greater front knee
joint extension (65.5° ± 12.6°) compared with the foot-up
serving technique (54.1° ± 11.7°, end position).48 This difference
is a by-product of the wider base of support, permitting greater
squat depth.48 A larger mean range of rear knee joint extension
occurs in foot-up serving (59.4° ± 6.6°) compared with the
foot-back technique (44.8° ± 8.3°).48 The higher vertical ground
reaction forces with a foot-up serving stance4,27 correlate
with the peak angular velocities of rear knee joint extension
(foot-up, 9.3 ± 1.2 rad·s-1; foot-back, 7.2 ± 0.9 rad·s-1).48
Service velocity correlates with greater muscle force during
the loading stage (stage 3),3
while service efficiency is
related to internal rotation of the arm.25,26,54 Optimal leg drive
mechanics and internal rotation arm flexibility are critical for
efficiency and velocity. Maximizing leg motion can produce a
consistent leg drive that may enhance shoulder rotation and
more efficient serves.32 Compared with beginner servers, elite