However, the effect was small, suggesting that demographic stochasticity is of minor importance for predicting the long-term growth of ungulate populations that have not gone extinct during the first period after introduction. This is probably related to the high adult survival rate and small litter size of larger ungulates, life-history traits that are often correlated with small demographic stochasticity (Fox & Kendall 2002 ; Sæther et al. 2004).