Major advances in multilevel research were not attained until the 1980s
(Hitt, Beamish, Jackson, & Mathieu, 2007), which was after Bandura derived
self-efficacy theory in 1977. Thus, initial research nearly universally
focused on self-efficacy at the between-persons level of analysis.With the
benefit of hindsight, it is clear that self-efficacy should be examined as
both a within- and between-persons construct because about 25% to 35%
of its variance lies at the within-person level of analysis (Beck & Schmidt,
2012b). In the following sections, we review key research findings regarding
within-person self-efficacy effects, study limitations, directions
for future research, and implications for the science and practice of people
at work.