The extent to which the greenhouse effect has so far been internalised is virtually zero, despite
declarations of intent, and this does not result only from technical uncertainties. Taxation is also being
considered -- and occasionally used -- to control the demand for transport, and to affect the modal
breakdown. Road pricing exists in certain countries. Here, we are not referring to the motorway tolls in
certain European countries such as France, Italy or Spain, the aim of which is essentially financial, and which
have a negative effect from this point of view, but to the general road-pricing systems introduced in certain
city states, such as Singapore and, a few years ago, in Hong Kong.
The road-pricing trials in the Netherlands have been temporarily abandoned. However, the
question is still under discussion or planned in several European countries (Netherlands, United Kingdom,
Switzerland). It may be raised again in line with future technical progress with electronic pricing systems.
However, road pricing has been introduced in a few cities, in the form of an annual charge or of tolls on roads
surrounding the town. Table 2.15 lists several cities which have introduced (or considered) urban roadpricing.
The fact is that the main effects of road-pricing can also be obtained by simple means, such as an
annual charge or by increasing the price of fuel, almost as effectively as with electronic tolls. The key to
success lies much more in the political will and the acceptability of the measures being proposed, than in the
technical difficulties involved. However, the net result is that congestion as a social cost is fairly poorly
internalised in the taxation of road transport. The same situation is found in other modes (particularly in air
transport), where congestion is high, with zero internalisation in existing tax systems.
A few countries have introduced coherent policies to influence the modal breakdown and the
volume of demand. Thus, the Netherlands combines taxation, technical emission standards and investment
policies. Transport policies in the Scandinavian countries are also motivated by the same concerns.
Switzerland has resolved the problem of disamenities from "North-South through-traffic" by a
series of measures combining taxation, technical standards and the construction of infrastructure to develop
combined forms of transport to replace through road traffic. Approaches of this type are also being examined
by certain countries on particularly heavily-loaded routes (for example, the Lille-Paris-Marseille route in
France). General policies of this kind are also being applied in certain cities. These policies include a
number of co-ordinated actions [these cities include for example Berne, Lubeck and Visby (see "Ecology 90"
Conference)]:
• control of parking places in the town centre;
• the arrangement of commuter car parks;
• priority being given to buses on reserved routes, with priority arrangements where there are
traffic conflicts with automobile traffic; and
• a ban on automobile traffic over extensive areas, particularly in city centres.
California has taken more general and more drastic measures, with direct action on air pollution
through the control of emissions. This approach is speeding up the development of motor vehicles with low
or zero emissions. Oil refineries in California are also pushing in the same direction, and work is being done
to expand the use of electric vehicles and public transport.
The United States has also implemented three general types of internalisation that are little-used in
other countries: