Tracheostomy Care and Complications in the Intensive Care Unit
Linda L. Morris, PhD, APN, CCNS⇑, Andrea Whitmer, RN, MSN, ACNP-BC and Erik McIntosh, RN, MSN, ACNP-BC
Tracheotomy is a common procedure in intensive care units, and nurses must provide proper care to tracheostomy patients to prevent complications. One of the most important considerations is effective mobilization of secretions, and a suction catheter is the most important tool for that purpose. Each bedside should be equipped with a functional suctioning system, an oxygen source, a manual resuscitation bag, and a complete tracheostomy kit, which should accompany patients wherever they go in the hospital. Complications include infection, tracheomalacia, skin breakdown, and tracheoesophageal fistula. Tracheostomy emergencies include hemorrhage, tube dislodgement and loss of airway, and tube obstruction; such emergencies are managed more effectively when all necessary supplies are readily available at the bedside. This article describes how to provide proper care in the intensive care unit, strategies for preventing complications, and management of tracheostomy emergencies.
Tracheotomy is a common procedure for multiple medical indications.1 To provide safe and competent care, nursing staff must understand the immediate postoperative and long-term management of tracheostomy patients. Each institution should have its own standard policies and procedures for caring for these patients. Basic minimal care usually consists of cleaning or changing the inner cannula, caring for the stoma, and suctioning at least 3 times a day. Depending on the thickness and quantity of secretions, more frequent inspection of the inner cannula may be necessary.
Tracheostomy tubes are made from various materials. Mitchell et al2 recommend that a plastic tracheostomy tube be used for initial placement. Metal tracheostomy tubes are rigid, lack a cuff, and cannot be attached to a ventilator or a bag-valve mask. For these reasons and the cost of materials and production, metal tubes are not commonly used in hospitals today.3 Some plastic tracheostomy tubes conform to a patient’s anatomy as the plastic softens at body temperature, and silicone tracheostomy tubes can conform to the size and shape of a patient’s trachea.3
In this article, we discuss management in the intensive care unit (ICU) of patients with a new tracheostomy. We include indications for tracheostomy, tube placement, patient care, prevention of complications, and emergency management.
This article has been designated for CNE credit. A closed-book, multiple-choice examination follows this article, which tests your knowledge of the following objectives:
1. Identify evidence-based recommendations for care, indications for placement, and general types of tracheostomies
2. Describe postoperative care of patients with a new tracheostomy
3. Describe the assessment and emergency interventions for patients with tracheostomy
Indications for Tracheotomy
Indications for placing tracheostomy tubes can be grouped into 4 general categories: ventilation, airway obstruction, airway protection, and secretions. The first category applies to patients who require long-term mechanical ventilation because of chronic respiratory failure, who cannot maintain respiratory function unassisted, or who cannot be weaned from ventilatory support. Numerous studies4–9 have been done to determine the optimal interval from orotracheal intubation to placement of a tracheostomy tube, but no definitive recommendations have been made because of varied results in different populations of patients and in patients with different comorbid conditions. The American College of Chest Physicians10 recommends consideration of a tracheostomy for patients who require an endotracheal tube for more than 21 days. Benefits of establishing a tracheostomy rather than using an endotracheal tube include decreasing direct laryngeal injury, improving comfort, and improving activities of daily living such as mobility, speech, and eating.11
Patients who have tumors within the airway, paralyzed vocal cords, swelling, stricture, or unusual airway anatomy are another category for tracheostomy because of airway obstruction that compromises normal respiration. A third category includes patients who cannot protect their airway and patients with an inefficient swallow and/or cough mechanism, common situations in patients who have a high spinal cord injury, cerebrovascular accident, or traumatic brain injury. Last, patients who cannot mobilize or manage their secretions may also require a tracheostomy.
Tracheostomy Placement
A tracheostomy tube may be placed surgically or percutaneously. Surgical placement is done in the operating room or at the bedside, generally with use of general anesthesia. A stoma is created by using an open surgical technique. Landmarks are identified, and a skin incision is made below the cricoid cartilage. The isthmus of the thyroid gland is exposed, cross-clamped, and ligated. The trachea can then be visualized. A common technique is to create a “trap door” (Björk flap) in which a small part of the tracheal cartilage is pulled down and sutured to the skin. This flap is thought to facilitate reinsertion of the tracheostomy tube if accidental decannulation occurs, especially in patients with difficult anatomy or obesity.12,13
Percutaneous tracheotomy is generally performed solely on intubated patients and, unlike surgical tracheotomy, can be performed without direct visualization of the trachea. Bronchoscopy is used to guide and confirm placement of the tracheostomy tube within the trachea and is considered standard of care.13 In contrast to an open surgical incision, a small opening is created with a needle and then dilated.13 Contraindications to percutaneous tracheotomy include uncorrected coagulopathy, infection at the incision site, high ratio of positive end-expiratory pressure to fraction of inspired oxygen, elevated intracranial pressure, tracheal obstruction, unusual neck anatomy, and the need for emergency airway management.11,14
Postoperative Care
Immediate postoperative priorities of care for a patient with a new tracheostomy include ensuring that the tracheostomy tube is securely in place and is patent. Routine care, as well as prompt management of postoperative complications, can be facilitated by ensuring that proper equipment and supplies are quickly available. Table 1 lists the contents of a tracheostomy kit that should be present at the patient’s bedside and, per recommendations, should accompany the patient whenever he or she is away from the ICU.2,15,16
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Table 1
Bedside tracheostomy kit
The American Academy of Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery recently published consensus statements for tracheostomy care.2 These statements were developed by a multidisciplinary panel of experts on care of patients with a tracheostomy. Using a modified Delphi method, the panel members completed surveys on various aspects of care. Consensus was reached on 77 statements that address the initial change of the tracheostomy tube, management of emergencies and complications, prerequisites for decannulation, management of tube cuffs and communication devices, and specific needs of patients and the patients’ caregivers. These statements are an important document because few randomized studies have addressed these issues, possibly because of the difficulty in study design and recruitment and because of ethical concerns. Table 2provides some of these important statements.
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Table 2
Consensus statements for tracheostomy care
Scheduled Changes of Tracheostomy Tubes
Currently, no empirical evidence indicates a standardized time for changing a tracheostomy tube, and changes are typically done according to the preference of the health care provider. White et al17 suggest that indications for changing a tracheostomy tube include the need for a different size tube, tube malfunction, need for a different type of tube, and routine changes for ongoing airway management and prevention of infection. They suggest that a tracheostomy tube should be changed every 7 to 14 days after initial insertion, but they acknowledge that no evidence supports that recommendation. Mitchell et al2 recommend replacing the initial tracheostomy tube within 10 to 14 days after placement if a percutaneous procedure was used to establish the tracheostomy and within 3 to 7 days if a surgical procedure was used. A tracheostomy tube inserted percutaneously fits more tightly within the stoma than does a tube that was inserted through a surgical incision. If a tracheostomy tube is changed prematurely, the tissue of the dilated stoma tract is more likely to recoil than it would if the change were done later.18 In addition, Mitchell et al2 recommend that patients should not be discharged from the hospital with the tracheostomy tube sutured in place because the first tracheostomy tube change should be done before discharge.
Changing tracheostomy tubes can correct problems that cause ventilator asynchrony, improve comfort by reducing tube size, and correct a cuff leak due to tracheomalacia or malposition or fracture of the tracheostomy tube or flange.17 Most manufacturers recommend changing the tubes every 1 to 2 months; however, Yaremchuk19 found that routine tube changes every 2 weeks decreased the formation of granulation tissue. In a study by Björling et al,20 electron micrographs of plastic tubes revealed visible surface changes after 30 days in all types of tubes studied: polyvinyl chloride, silicone, and polyurethane.
Cleaning and Replacing the Inner Cannula
The primary purpose of the inner cannula is to prevent tube obstruction by allowing regular cleaning or replacement. Many episodes of tube obstruction can be prevented with simple inspection and cleaning or changing of the inner