Specific ‘‘risk assessment’’ decisions and responses
by the prey species (‘‘adaptive decision making’’: Sih
1987) may reduce the immediate and longer-term impacts
of a predator (Lima and Dill 1990; Sih et al. 1998; Lima
2002; Schmitz et al. 2004), although there are also distinct
costs of anti-predator decisions (e.g., Scrimgeour and Culp
1994), and there is a high degree of species-specific variability
in resistance (e.g., Grosholtz et al. 2000; Knapp
2005).