112
Chapter Four
The Audio - Lingual Method and the
Communicative Language Teaching Method
4.1. The Audio - Lingual Method
It was Nelson Brooks of Yale University who suggested the term “Audio
- Lingual’ for ‘Aural - Oral’. This method is called ‘Structural Approach’ in
Britain. The method emphasised speech as the primary mode of expression
and was based on some of the characteristic features of Bloomsfieldian
linguistics and the Skinnerian model of learning, the basic tenets of which are:
i) Language is speech, not writing.
ii) A language is what its native speakers say, not what some
one thinks they ought to say.
iii) Languages are different; they have similarities and differences
which can be systematically studied.
iv) Language is behaviour and behaviour is a matter of habit.
Language learning is a mechanical skill and no intellectual
process is involved in it. Because it is mechanical, the
linguistic behaviour can be conditioned. So, in teaching a
113
language the teacher should follow the stimulus - response -
reinforcement pattern and in language teaching there should
be controlled, spaced, repetition.
v) Teach language, not about language.1
Linguists described language in terms of certain levels: phonology,
morphology and syntax. Audio Linguists believed in the separation of the
skills : listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW) and the Audio Lingual
Method used certain practical techniques like mimicry, memorization, pattern
practice and the language laboratory; it encouraged the use of dialogues and
substitution tables. The underlying theoretical assumptions like a scientific
approach to the study and teaching of languages, preparing materials based
on frequency counts of words and structures, emphasis on selection, gradation,
and presentation in a systematic manner, belief in behaviourism etc. constitute
the approach. Within an approach there can be several methods like the
audio lingual and the audiovisual developed in France based on visual
presentation of scenario etc. that emphasized the social use of language or
even the ‘bilingual method’ advocated by Dodson (1967) which allowed the
controlled and judicious use of the first language, the reading method, etc.
They can all be brought under what has come to be known as the Structural
114
Approach. Presentation, establishment, and classroom cultivation are matters
of technique. Thus, within the broad frame of the Structural Approach, which
emphasized the teaching of vocabulary and structures in a graded sequence
that has been arrived at on the basis of an objective description of the language
to be learnt, several methods and techniques were advocated. The Audio -
Lingual Method is in part a reflection of the availability of audio technology
during the 1950s and the structural views on language. This makes it an
improved version of the Direct Method.2
The most important aspects of the Audio Lingual Method are
summarised by Richards and Rodgers (1986):
i) Language teaching begins with the spoken language; the
material is taught orally before it is presented in written form.
ii) The target language is the language of the classroom.
iii) New language points are introduced and practised
situationally.
iv) Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that
an Essential Service Vocabulary is covered.
v) Items of grammar are graded following the principle that
simple forms should be taught before complex ones.
115
vi) Reading and writing are introduced when a sufficient lexical
and grammatical basis is established.3
Anthropologists and linguistic scientists have carried out various
researches. One of their findings reveals that the native language is always
learned by an infant in spoken form first and “this led to the theory that students
acquire a Foreign Language more easily if it is presented in the spoken form
before the written form”.4
This method was developed in the US during the II World War when
the Americans realised the necessity of teaching languages to their army in
order to have communication with their allies or with their enemy contacts. A
quick method was developed, which involved “small classes of native
informants, explanation of structure by linguistic experts, and long hours of
drilling and active practice with graded materials based on this analysis of
structure” to give a high degree of aural - oral skill to their army.5
This method
which was known as ‘Army Method’ later came to be known as the Audio -
Lingual Method or the Aural - Oral Method. An analysis of the principles laid
down and summarised by Moultan reveals that a language is learnt in its
spoken form first, even before the graphic form is introduced.
116
This, Rivers observes, is considering the fact that an early introduction
of graphic symbols can have a negative impact on the pronunciation of the
Target Language as they may have some correspondence to the native
language sounds. Thus, it is observed that no language in its graphic form
can be introduced to the learners before it is drilled in its oral form to a certain
extent.
An advantage of the written form introduced later is that sufficient
emphasis can be given to correct articulation and intonation of the sounds of
the Target Language. But this does not in any way convey the idea that
writing is neglected in this method. In Rivers’ view, Moulton’s Second principle,
‘A language is a set of habits’, is a result of the development of the concept of
habit formation accepted. Rivers observes further that the early exponents of
the Aural - Oral Method were influenced by B.F. Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning Theory. According to this theory, habits are reinforced with the
proper reinforcement of acts. In the Aural - Oral Method, the same principle
has been applied whereby learners respond to the language stimuli. Just as
we respond in our native language unaware of the structure we are using, we
can make the learner respond to the stumli and then be made to focus on the
structures used. Here also, giving appropriate stimuli necessitates responses
in the Target Language.
117
The Aural - Oral or the Audio - Lingual Method, in contrast to the
Grammar - Translation Method, does not involve the cumbersome task of
learning Grammar rules and exceptions followed by a wide variety of written
exercises. The method, instead, is very much concerned with the oral practices
the learners get. In fact, where the Grammar- Translation Method is used,
the learners are the least motivated because the very emphasis of the method
is on cramming up rules of Grammar. Advocates of the Aural - Oral Method
leave the study of Grammar for the more advanced group who show an
inclination towards it.
One severe criticism against the textbooks is that they contain abstracts
of Classic Literature that are of high intellectual value. This may sound trivial,
but this is one of the major reasons behind the learners’ incomprehension of
texts and inability to use the vocabulary they have learnt. The words and
usages in these texts may not be of any relevance to the present day learner,
but still they find place in the textbooks just because of their intellectual value.
The learners are at sea when confronted with a situation where they are
demanded of using any particular phrase in those texts. No retention of learning
occurs simply because the learners are not able to associate them with anything
concrete. They may rather be given dialogues and phrases that a native
speaker would use and the very cliche`s and expressions that find place in a
118
native speaker’s dialogues. If a contextual explanation is added to this, the
learners would know where they might use these foreign phrases or cliche`s,
in what context and to which audience.
In contrast to the Direct Method, which finds no place for the Mother
Tongue of the learner, allowances to a certain extent are permitted in the
Aural - Oral Method. Rivers observers, “since ‘meaning’, factual or emotional,
of segments of native language discourse is acquired in situations in the native
culture, one - to - one equivalents for words in another language can be very
misleading”.6
Thus it follows that instead of giving word - to - word equivalents, versions
of dialogues in the Mother Tongue, which contain idiomatic expressions similar
to those in the Foreign Language can be given. This would enable the learners
to assimilate their cultural significance and use equivalent expressions in the
Foreign Language when situations demand. Rivers goes on to give a detailed
study of the techniques of the Aural - Oral Method.7
The learners are given
oral practice of dialogues, in groups and individually. When they are sufficiently
trained in this, applications of the dialogues to the personal situation of the
learners are made as they ensure more effective retention. Further, pattern
practices are given to drill the structure in those dialogues. The learners are
119
then, only then, permitted to have a glance at the printed material, the oral
form of which has been practised already.
Writing is introduced at a later stage, restricting it to short transcriptions
at the initial stage and gradually moving to the recombination of what has
already been heard and learnt. Graded reading materials are provided at the
advanced stage, which are often discussed orally and played on tape prior to
it. At all stages, listening and speaking activities are given paramount
importance and are never neglected.
The Audio - Lingual or the Aural - Oral Method stands unique in its
approach as it succeeds in gradual development of all the four language skills
viz. listening, speaking, reading and writing. Even though reading and writing
are introduced only later, the method makes sure that the learners achieve
proficiency in all these. As the learners literally use the language at a very
early stage the motivation on the part of the learners is very high, as they
have the satisfaction that they are able to
112บทที่ 4เสียง - วิธีภาษาและวิธีการสอนภาษาเพื่อ4.1.เสียง - วิธีภาษาก็มหาวิทยาลัยบรู๊คส์เยลเนลสันผู้แนะนำคำว่า "เสียง-ภาษา ' ใน 'ฟัง - พูด' วิธีนี้เรียกว่า 'วิธีการโครงสร้าง' ในสหราชอาณาจักร วิธีการ emphasised เสียงเป็นโหมดหลักของนิพจน์และเป็นไปตามของลักษณะของ Bloomsfieldianภาษาศาสตร์และรุ่น Skinnerian ของการเรียนรู้ tenets พื้นฐานของที่อยู่:i) ภาษาเป็นคำพูด ไม่เขียนii) ภาษาเป็นสิ่งที่ภาษาพูด ไม่อะไรบางอย่างหนึ่งคิดว่า พวกเขาควรจะพูดiii) ภาษาแตกต่างกัน มีความคล้ายคลึงและความแตกต่างซึ่งสามารถมีระบบศึกษาiv) ภาษาเป็นพฤติกรรม และพฤติกรรมเป็นเรื่องของนิสัยเรียนรู้ภาษาเป็นทักษะที่เป็นเครื่องจักรกลและทรัพย์สินทางปัญญาไม่กระบวนการมีส่วนร่วมใน เนื่องจากเครื่องจักรกล การพฤติกรรมภาษาศาสตร์สามารถปรับอากาศ ดังนั้น ในการ113ภาษาครูผู้สอนควรติดตามกระตุ้น -ตอบ-รูปแบบการเสริมแรง และภาษา ควรสอนมีควบคุม ระยะ ห่าง ทำซ้ำv) สอนภาษา ไม่เกี่ยวกับ language.1นักภาษาศาสตร์อธิบายภาษาในบางระดับ: วารสารมนุษยศาสตร์มหาวิทยาลัยนเรศวรสัณฐานวิทยาและไวยากรณ์ เสียงนักภาษาศาสตร์เชื่อกันว่าในการแยกของทักษะ: ฟัง พูด อ่าน และเขียน (LSRW) และ ภาษาเสียงวิธีใช้บางเทคนิคปฏิบัติเช่น mimicry สะท้อน รูปแบบปฏิบัติและห้องปฏิบัติการภาษา จึงสนับสนุนให้ใช้ของประเด็น และตารางทดแทน สมมติฐานทฤษฎีพื้นฐานเช่นการทางวิทยาศาสตร์วิธีการศึกษาและสอนภาษา การเตรียมวัสดุที่ใช้ในการตรวจนับความถี่ของคำและโครงสร้าง การเลือก การไล่ระดับสีและนำเสนออย่างเป็นระบบ ความเชื่อใน behaviourism ฯลฯ เป็นแนวทางการ ในวิธีการ มีได้หลายวิธีเช่นการโดยเสียงและในภาพพัฒนาในประเทศฝรั่งเศสตาม visualนำเสนอสถานการณ์ฯลฯ ที่เน้นการใช้ภาษาทางสังคม หรือแม้ 'สองวิธี' advocated โดย Dodson (1967) ซึ่งได้รับอนุญาตควบคุม และ judicious ใช้ภาษาแรก วิธีอ่าน ฯลฯพวกเขาสามารถทั้งหมดนำภายใต้อะไรมาเรียกโครงสร้าง114แนวทางการ งานนำเสนอ ก่อตั้ง และห้องเรียนปลูกเป็นเรื่องเทคนิคการ ภายในกรอบกว้างของแนวทางโครงสร้าง จึง ซึ่งเน้นสอนคำศัพท์และโครงสร้างมีการจัดระดับตามลำดับที่มารับถึงที่ตามคำอธิบายวัตถุประสงค์ของภาษาเพื่อจะเรียนรู้ วิธีการและเทคนิคต่าง ๆ ได้ advocated เสียง-วิธีภาษาเป็นส่วนหนึ่งสะท้อนให้เห็นถึงความพร้อมของเทคโนโลยีเสียงในช่วงทศวรรษ 1950 และมุมมองโครงสร้างภาษา ทำให้การรุ่นปรับปรุงของ Method.2 โดยตรงมีลักษณะสำคัญของวิธีการภาษาเสียงsummarised by Richards and Rodgers (1986):i) Language teaching begins with the spoken language; thematerial is taught orally before it is presented in written form.ii) The target language is the language of the classroom.iii) New language points are introduced and practisedsituationally.iv) Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure thatan Essential Service Vocabulary is covered.v) Items of grammar are graded following the principle thatsimple forms should be taught before complex ones.115vi) Reading and writing are introduced when a sufficient lexicaland grammatical basis is established.3Anthropologists and linguistic scientists have carried out variousresearches. One of their findings reveals that the native language is alwayslearned by an infant in spoken form first and “this led to the theory that studentsacquire a Foreign Language more easily if it is presented in the spoken formbefore the written form”.4This method was developed in the US during the II World War whenthe Americans realised the necessity of teaching languages to their army inorder to have communication with their allies or with their enemy contacts. Aquick method was developed, which involved “small classes of nativeinformants, explanation of structure by linguistic experts, and long hours ofdrilling and active practice with graded materials based on this analysis ofstructure” to give a high degree of aural - oral skill to their army.5 วิธีการนี้ซึ่งถูกเรียกว่า 'กองทัพวิธี' ในภายหลังมาเรียกเสียง-ภาษาหรือวิธีการฟัง - พูดวิธีการ การวิเคราะห์หลักวางลง และ summarised โดย Moultan พบว่าเป็นการเรียนรู้ภาษาในการพูดแบบฟอร์มแรก ก่อนนำรูปแบบ116นี้ แม่พิจารณา จะพิจารณาข้อเท็จจริงที่แนะนำเป็นต้นสัญลักษณ์รูปภาพสามารถมีผลกระทบเชิงลบในการออกเสียงเป้าหมายภาษาพวกเขาอาจมีบางติดต่อพื้นเมืองเสียงภาษา ดังนั้น มันจะสังเกตที่ไม่มีภาษาในรูปแบบกราฟิกสามารถนำไปเรียนที่ก่อนที่มันจะเจาะแบบปากเพื่อการบางอย่างขอบเขตการข้อดีของแบบฟอร์มคำแนะนำในภายหลังคือที่เพียงพอเน้นจะต้องวิคิวลาร์และโทนเสียงของเสียงภาษาเป้าหมาย แต่นี้ไม่ใช่ในทางถ่ายทอดความคิดที่เขียนเป็นที่ไม่มีกิจกรรมในวิธีการนี้ ในมุมมองของแม่น้ำ Moulton ของหลักสอง'ภาษาเป็นชุดของพฤติกรรม ', ผลของการพัฒนาแนวความคิดของยอมรับก่อให้เป็นนิสัย แม่น้ำพิจารณาเพิ่มเติมที่เลขชี้กำลังเริ่มต้นของAural - วิธีปากเปล่าได้รับอิทธิพลจากของสกินเนอร์ B.F. Operantปรับทฤษฎี เสริมแรงตามทฤษฎีนี้ นิสัยกับการเสริมแรงที่เหมาะสมของการกระทำ ในการ Aural - วิธีการพูด หลักการเดียวกันได้ถูกใช้ โดยผู้เรียนตอบสนองต่อสิ่งเร้าของภาษา เพียงเป็นwe respond in our native language unaware of the structure we are using, wecan make the learner respond to the stumli and then be made to focus on thestructures used. Here also, giving appropriate stimuli necessitates responsesin the Target Language.117The Aural - Oral or the Audio - Lingual Method, in contrast to theGrammar - Translation Method, does not involve the cumbersome task oflearning Grammar rules and exceptions followed by a wide variety of writtenexercises. The method, instead, is very much concerned with the oral practicesthe learners get. In fact, where the Grammar- Translation Method is used,the learners are the least motivated because the very emphasis of the methodis on cramming up rules of Grammar. Advocates of the Aural - Oral Methodleave the study of Grammar for the more advanced group who show aninclination towards it.One severe criticism against the textbooks is that they contain abstractsof Classic Literature that are of high intellectual value. This may sound trivial,but this is one of the major reasons behind the learners’ incomprehension oftexts and inability to use the vocabulary they have learnt. The words andusages in these texts may not be of any relevance to the present day learner,but still they find place in the textbooks just because of their intellectual value.The learners are at sea when confronted with a situation where they aredemanded of using any particular phrase in those texts. No retention of learningoccurs simply because the learners are not able to associate them with anythingconcrete. They may rather be given dialogues and phrases that a nativespeaker would use and the very cliche`s and expressions that find place in a118native speaker’s dialogues. If a contextual explanation is added to this, thelearners would know where they might use these foreign phrases or cliche`s,in what context and to which audience.In contrast to the Direct Method, which finds no place for the MotherTongue of the learner, allowances to a certain extent are permitted in theAural - Oral Method. Rivers observers, “since ‘meaning’, factual or emotional,of segments of native language discourse is acquired in situations in the nativeculture, one - to - one equivalents for words in another language can be verymisleading”.6Thus it follows that instead of giving word - to - word equivalents, versionsof dialogues in the Mother Tongue, which contain idiomatic expressions similarto those in the Foreign Language can be given. This would enable the learnersto assimilate their cultural significance and use equivalent expressions in theForeign Language when situations demand. Rivers goes on to give a detailedstudy of the techniques of the Aural - Oral Method.7 The learners are givenoral practice of dialogues, in groups and individually. When they are sufficientlytrained in this, applications of the dialogues to the personal situation of thelearners are made as they ensure more effective retention. Further, patternpractices are given to drill the structure in those dialogues. The learners are119then, only then, permitted to have a glance at the printed material, the oralform of which has been practised already.Writing is introduced at a later stage, restricting it to short transcriptionsat the initial stage and gradually moving to the recombination of what hasalready been heard and learnt. Graded reading materials are provided at theadvanced stage, which are often discussed orally and played on tape prior toit. At all stages, listening and speaking activities are given paramountimportance and are never neglected.The Audio - Lingual or the Aural - Oral Method stands unique in itsapproach as it succeeds in gradual development of all the four language skillsviz. listening, speaking, reading and writing. Even though reading and writingare introduced only later, the method makes sure that the learners achieveproficiency in all these. As the learners literally use the language at a veryearly stage the motivation on the part of the learners is very high, as theyhave the satisfaction that they are able to
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